to power of Augustus and the establishment of his rule, embracing the years 44–23 B.C. (chapters vii–xxiii). The period witne

en composed in tranquillity; and it ought to be held back for several years and rewritten. But the theme, I firmly believe, i

till less to utilize, the writings and discoveries of the last twelve years , much as I should have liked to insert various sm

on of the Republic in 27 B.C., or from the new act of settlement four years later, which was final and permanent. Outlastin

and solidity all human and rational calculation. It lasted for forty years . No astrologer or doctor could have foretold that

ceps. ’ It was the end of a century of anarchy, culminating in twenty years of civil war and military tyranny. If despotism w

se to be Imperator Caesar. There is no breach in continuity. Twenty years of crowded history, Caesarian and Triumviral, can

bicon to the last battle in Spain. Then he followed Antonius for five years . Loyal to Caesar, and proud of his loyalty, Polli

also the vicissitudes of the whole ruling class over a long period of years , in the attempt to combine and adapt that cumbrou

menace of despotic power hung over Rome like a heavy cloud for thirty years from the Dictatorship of Sulla to the Dictatorshi

rchic principes fell by the sword. Five civil wars and more in twenty years drained the life-blood of Rome and involved the w

ate; and a re-alignment of forces precipitated war and revolution ten years later. Amicitia presupposes inimicitia, inherit

B.C.). The government which he established lasted for nearly twenty years . Its rule was threatened at the outset by a turbu

in the right season, and guided by craft and counsel the first stormy years of the renovated oligarchy. 5 Among other eminent

mple the Aurelii Cottae and the Octavii (with two consuls each in the years 76-74 B.C.), the Calpurnii, the Cassii and the An

State, holding twelve consulates, censorships or triumphs in as many years . 3 Impaired by the rise and domination of the par

Velleius 2, 11, 3. On another calculation, six consulates in fifteen years (123-109 B.C.). Q. Metellus Macedonicus (cos. 143

ponds. 3 Of the Senate’s generals, Metellus Pius contended for long years in Spain, and Creticus usurped a cognomen for pet

Macedonia, where he died; P. Servilius with better fortune for four years in Cilicia. Most glorious of all were the two Luc

younger rival; and L. Licinius Lucullus, thwarted of his triumph for years by the machinations of his enemies, turned for co

the influence of their husbands. 4 On the whole, when some fifteen years had elapsed since Sulla’s death, the predominance

by help from C. Marius, strained every nerve and effort through long years of political intrigue to maintain the dignitas of

is ally and saved the government. Then, coming back to Rome after six years of absence, when he had terminated the war in Spa

Gabinia). No province of the Empire was immune from his control. Four years before, Pompeius had not even been a senator. The

telli, by no means unequivocal or unclouded, endured for some fifteen years after Sulla’s death. Provinces and armies gave

iage. 1 Cato rebuffed him. Baffling enough after an absence of five years , Roman politics were further complicated by the a

modified in various ways, and impaired as time went on, for some ten years . 7 This capture of the NotesPage=>035 1 Th

anted the province of Cisalpine Gaul, which dominated Italy, for five years . Pompeius’ purpose was flagrant there could be no

asts, whose influence decided the consular elections for the next two years as well. 2 Despite patronage at home and armed

rhaps deliberately enhanced, he secured a special commission for five years to purchase and control corn for the city. The po

us and Crassus and, after that, Spain and Syria respectively for five years ; Caesar’s command was also to be prolonged. Pom

tically after praetorship and consulate, but when an interval of five years had elapsed, was recommended by the fair show of

towards Cato. Pompeius prolonged his own possession of Spain for five years more and sought by a trick to annul the law passe

feated, to the satisfaction of Pompeius no less than of Caesar. Two years passed, heavy with a gathering storm. Caesar’s en

bitter or beyond remedy: the Metelli were too politic for that. Three years later Nepos was consul, perhaps with help from Po

mmodation became perceptible. Despite five consulates in twenty-three years , the Metelli soon found that their power was pass

rge again into sudden prominence with three consuls in the last three years of the Free State. 4 The influence of NotesPage

dates. Again, when he landed in Italy after an absence of nearly five years , force was his only defence against the party tha

d counsels of his adversaries secured the crowning victory. But three years more of fighting were needed to stamp out the las

s conquered in battle, the Republic could hardly have survived. A few years , and Pompeius the Dictator would have been assass

ar the need was patent. The Dictator’s task might well demand several years . In 46 B.C. his powers were prolonged to a tenure

everal years. In 46 B.C. his powers were prolonged to a tenure of ten years , an ominous sign. A gleam of hope that the emerge

reform. 2 Having written treatises about the Roman Commonwealth some years earlier, he may have expected to be consulted upo

or was on the point of departing in the spring of 44 B.C. for several years of campaigning in the Balkans and the East, he ti

best of testimony ’my life has been long enough, whether reckoned in years or in renown. ’ The words were remembered. The mo

er this the paths of Brutus and of Caesar diverged sharply for eleven years . But Brutus, after Pharsalus, at once gave up a l

lliances. Sulla restored the oligarchic rule of the nobiles. Thirty years later they clustered around Pompeius, from intere

were of any use to Caesar or to the State. During the previous three years Caesar had not been able to influence the consula

rty of Marius and the battle-cries of the last civil war, only thirty years before. The memory of Sulla was loathed even by t

wo Pompeian censors had cleansed the Senate of undesirables. 4 Twenty years later, on the verge of another coup d’état, Pompe

ocial inferiors the knight C. Volusenus Quadratus served for some ten years continuous under Caesar NotesPage=>070 1 B

Asculum, he had been led or carried in a Roman triumph. From obscure years of early manhood some said that he served as a co

d P. Sulla1 who had acquired an evil name for his acquisitions thirty years before. Balbus was notorious already, envied and

e memory of oppression and war, of defeat and devastation. Only forty years before Caesar’s invasion, the allies of Rome from

aly must have been outside the control of the Roman government in the years 88–83 B.C. The Samnites held Nola even till 80 B.

cipiis domi nobiles. ’ Etruria, an eager ally of Lepidus only fifteen years before, provided the nucleus of the movement this

s, might promise change. 2 Cicero claimed that in the space of thirty years he was the first knight’s son to become consul. H

is legates in the Gallic campaigns. 5 Nine consuls took office in the years 48–44 B.C., all men with senatorial rank before t

41), was the first consul from Lanuvium (ib. 86). 4 In each of the years 54–49 B.C. One of the two consuls was of patricia

vernors in the far West. In Syria Bassus had stirred up civil war two years before, seizing the strong place of Apamea. His f

s a great orator, his father a good-natured but careless person), the years of pleasure and adventure brought him, after serv

rsaries. Antonius had been no friend of Dolabella in the last three years : yet he condoned and recognized Dolabella’s usurp

ation indeed: it had seldom, if ever, existed in the preceding twenty years . The revival of Libertas in a period of crisis wo

y was to know him as ‘Divus Augustus’. In the early and revolutionary years the heir of Caesar never, it is true, referred to

grasp and definition no less than the mature statesman. For the early years , a sore lack everywhere of personal, authentic an

he young man was a Roman and a Roman aristocrat. He was only eighteen years of age: but he resolved to acquire the power and

y the dissemination of propaganda, of promises, of bribes. With his years , his name and his ambition, Octavianus had nothin

ces to Caesar’s heir. After November he slips out of history for four years : the manner of his return shows that he had not b

bout the names and origin of the adherents of Octavianus in the first years of his revolutionary career is deplorably scanty.

me passes before any number of senators emerge on his side. When four years have elapsed and Octavianus through all hazards,

hy. Cicero had never been a revolutionary not even a reformer. In the years following his consulate he wavered between Pompei

hom the last word rested. Pompeius was the stronger from the earliest years of Cicero’s political career he seemed to have do

vail himself of the clemency and personal esteem of the victor. The years of life under the Dictatorship were unhappy and i

isplays of political invective, as when he contended with L. Piso ten years earlier. Between Antonius and Cicero there lay

ed Antonius with the choice between capitulation and destruction. Six years before, the same policy precipitated war between

30. 2 ‘Vulturii paludati’ (Pro Sestio 71). Cf. the speeches of the years 57-55 B.C., passim. 3 In Pisonem 68 ff.; cf. Or

γ∈λοῖον ὕπατον ἔχομ∈ν. 2 Cf. the friendly and humorous letter many years later, Ad fam. 5, 10a. 3 Suetonius, Divus Iuliu

rrendered, for the public good. Cicero had descended to that language years before when he explained the noble motives that i

e watchword ‘parce civibus’. 4 It was repeated and imitated in twenty years of civil war. Zealous to avoid the shedding of Ro

campaigns were curtailed in this humane and salubrious fashion: seven years later the plea of Lepidus recoiled upon his Not

ficial recognition of Caesar’s heir? Senators could recall how twenty years before a consul had secured the execution of Roma

e at the end of 44 B.C., Cicero and Ser. Sulpicius Rufus. Nor had the years of Caesar’s Dictatorship furnished enough consuls

primacy, that now at last fell to Cicero in his old age, after twenty years from his famous consulate, after twenty years of

s old age, after twenty years from his famous consulate, after twenty years of humiliation and frustration. In this December

us (cos. 45 B.C.), had died in office. That left six consulars of the years 48-45. 4 Phil. 8, 22. 5 Ad fam. 12, 4, 1. 6

haracter, attainments and standing; and all three were to survive the years of the Revolution, Lepidus consigned to exile and

who lived on obscure and unrecorded (he was augur for the space of 55 years ), and Cn. Domitius Calvinus, lost to history for

D. Brutus called him ‘homo ventosissimus’ (Ad fam. 11, 9, 1); Cicero years before ‘iste omnium turpissimus et sordidissimus’

al dispensation, he was to be allowed to stand for the consulship ten years before the legal age. Octavianus was now nineteen

legal age. Octavianus was now nineteen: he would still have thirteen years to wait. After this, the vote of a gilded statue

Firstly, the law violated Caesar’s Lex de provincia, which fixed two years as the tenure of a consular province: but that mi

ige respected, might show himself amenable to an accommodation. Seven years before a small minority dominant in the Senate br

nsisted on retaining Comata: that province he would hold for the five years following, until Brutus and Cassius should have b

rannic office was now revived under another name for a period of five years three men were to hold paramount and arbitrary po

nd the conferment of nobility. The dynasts made arrangements for some years in advance which provide some indication of the t

isan Pollio as proconsul of the Cisalpina, perhaps to hold it for two years till his consulate (40 B.C.). 4 Lepidus retained

a at this time was dubious, disputed in a local civil war for several years . 5 As for the islands, it may already have been f

k=>190 The rule of the dynast Pompeius in 60 B.C. and during the years following depended upon control, open or secret,

amp of Brutus and Cassius, eagerly or with the energy of despair. Six years earlier the cause of the Republic beyond the seas

live: for the sons and relatives of the others the only record in the years 43–39 B.C. is a Metellus and a Lentulus among the

hals, of origin no more distinguished than Agrippa, was his senior in years and military experience. His example showed that

before. 9 The glory of it went to Antonius and abode with him for ten years . The Caesarian leaders now had to satisfy the dem

ns and Republicans as he had stirred up against Antonius nearly three years earlier. In alarm he sent his confidential agent,

ign at all. Nor did he see the Queen of Egypt again until nearly four years had elapsed. On the havoc of intestine strife a

or Lepidus the dynasts resigned possession of Africa, which for three years had been the theatre of confused fighting between

Epode is quoted and utilized here, though it may very well be several years later in date. The problem of priority between th

e credulity or ignorance of scholars and visionaries for two thousand years ; it has been aggravated by a hazard to which prop

a son, Marcellus, by her consular husband; but Marcellus was born two years earlier. 6 In 40 B.C. Octavianus himself, it is t

from Gades, emerging again into open history after an absence of four years , and the Antonian P. Canidius Crassus. 5 Their se

liance, Antonius began with a formidable advantage. It waned with the years and absence in the East. Octavianus was able to

as Antonius’ headquarters for two winters and the greater part of two years (39-37). Save for two journeys to the coast of It

ecord of any operations against them. The history of Macedonia in the years 38-32 B.C. is a complete blank. 3 Coins of Sosi

r the Picene, who had been led a captive by Pompeius Strabo fifty-one years before, celebrated in Rome his paradoxical triump

thered about that. The Triumvirate was now prolonged for another five years until the end of 33 B.C.3 By then, it was presume

herents of Antonius, Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus and C. Sosius. But five years is a long period in a revolutionary epoch. Octavi

and to the Caesarian party, Antonius had lost the better part of two years , sacrificing ambition, interest and power. Of an

he chance to suppress Caesar’s heir had been offered repeatedly three years before, by fortune, by Fulvia and by Salvidienus.

=>229 Octavianus abruptly divorced Scribonia, his senior by many years and a tiresome character. 1 He then contracted wi

l and thankless Titius, whose life had been saved by Pompeius several years earlier. 3 The young Caesar had conquered the i

i, in which mild resort he survived the loss of honour by twenty-four years . The ruin of Lepidus had no doubt been carefull

hed liberty, had at least maintained a semblance of peace in the four years that had elapsed since the Pact of Brundisium. Of

ed in devotion, but had attached few senators of note, even when four years had elapsed since the foundation of the faction a

can be found holding military command under Caesar’s heir in the four years before Brundisium, unless Norbanus, the grandson

the regular control of patronage improved his prospects. Another four years , from the Pact of Brundisium to his triumph in th

.C.; the upstart Laronius and the noble Messalla had to wait for some years not many. High priesthoods were conferred as pa

or time-server as well: the prospect of a consulate in ten or twenty years , if the system endured, invited young men of tale

distinct advantage over the distant Antonius. He easily found in the years that followed the men to govern the military prov

peer of the great Antonius in courage, NotesPage=>239 1 In the years 36-32 Africa was governed by Taurus and Cornifici

240 vigour and resource. To this end he devoted his energies in the years 35 and 34 B.C. Antonius might fight the wars of t

nd inadequate. Encouraged by Rome’s enforced neglect in nearly twenty years of civil dissensions, the tribes of the mountaino

age=>240 1 It has sometimes been argued that Octavianus in these years made vast conquests in Illyricum, including the w

advertisement that heralded an armed struggle. It had begun some six years before. 2 At first Octavianus was outshone. Ant

icilian triumph, and Octavianus pressed the advantage in the next few years with cheap and frequent honours for his proconsul

as one of the new consuls: he had not been heard of for nearly twenty years . Complete darkness also envelops the career and t

Ch. XVIII ROME UNDER THE TRIUMVIRS PageBook=>243 IT was ten years from the proscriptions, ten years of Triumviral d

IRS PageBook=>243 IT was ten years from the proscriptions, ten years of Triumviral despotism. Despite repeated disturb

raetorian rank). PageBook=>244 perished during the last twenty years , others, especially the Pompeians and Republicans

lerii yet, but the Valerii were soon to provide three consuls in four years . 3 No less conspicuous were the gaps in the ranks

nius, Junius or Calpurnius. Those families were not extinct, but many years would have to pass before the Fasti of the consul

t divinarum, in forty-one books, appears to have been composed in the years 55–47 B.C. It was dedicated to Caesar. 2 Sueton

e vita. ’ This gives as the date 38 or 37 B.C. Varro lived on for ten years more (Jerome, Chron., p. 164 H). 4 Sallust, BJ

upon the historian, imperatively recalling the men and acts of forty years before, civil strife and the levying of private a

oken or written word of Roman statesmen. In little more than twenty years a generation and a school of Roman poets had disa

ics, disappearing utterly from historical record to emerge after nine years in splendour and power. He had probably gone east

Varro’s books on agriculture had newly appeared; men had bewailed for years that Italy was become a desert; and the hardships

ission to restore order in the countryside. 2 With some success a few years later charges of highway robbery outstanding agai

ubmerged in the innumerable hordes of its subjects. The revolutionary years exposed Rome to the full onrush of foreign religi

igher ranks of the Senate a number of men who had come to maturity in years when Rome yet displayed the name and the fabric o

. Octavianus was no longer the terrorist of Perusia. Since then seven years had passed. But he was not yet the leader of all

spondence with M. Antonius, from the ends of the earth (20, 4). A few years earlier the infant granddaughter of Atticus, Vips

be in power at Rome. Antonius had already lost the better part of two years not Ventidius but the victor of Philippi should h

oman vassals, the Queen of Egypt: he had not seen her for nearly four years . Fonteius brought her to Antioch, where they spen

ul and vassal-ruler. After Antonius’ departure from Egypt nearly four years earlier, Cleopatra had given birth to twin childr

ialver- waltung der Triumvirn (Diss. Strassburg, 1892), 31 ff. In the years 40–32 B.C., Ganter gives, for Syria, Saxa, Ventid

be guessed that the Cocceii, a new family showing two consuls in four years , were highly circumspect. M. Cocceius Nerva and a

have moved farther in this direction. He had not been in Rome for six years : had his allegiance and his ideas swerved from R

public manifestoes, of which there had been a dearth in the last few years . Lampoon and abuse had likewise been silent under

clearly indicated by Dio and Plutarch, the only full sources for the years 33 and 32 B.C., has been satisfactorily establish

o Cleopatra. Antonius retorted it was nothing new, but had begun nine years ago: Cleopatra was his wife. As for Octavianus, w

cipal actors were dead: in fact, Sosius and Domitius were only eleven years from Hirtius and Pansa. Then the new year had bee

titude of Octavianus is perfectly clear: he had been Triumvir for ten years (Res Gestae 7). A master in all the arts of polit

employed the name, again offered to give up his powers, as he had two years before. 4 Furthermore, if the law and the constit

the instrument of Rome’s enemy. And so Octavianus, like Cicero twelve years earlier when he so eloquently justified a Catilin

the general and undistinctive appellation of ‘Italian’. Within a few years of Actium, a patriotic poet revolted at the mere

ions of two rivals for supreme power. The elder, like Pompeius twenty years before, a great reputation but on the wane: nec

asion of Italy. The adhesion of Sulmo to the national cause seventeen years later may perhaps be put down to the agency of a

290 1 Cf. M. A. Levi, Ottaviano Capoparte 11, 153. 2 As seventeen years before, when Caesar’s invasion of Italy was immin

the logical end of the factions, compacts and wars of the last thirty years , though liberty perished, peace might be achieved

cessor of L. Cornificius in Africa, On the provincial commands in the years 32–28, see further below, p. 302 f. 6 Dio 51, 3

smaller than it had been after Pompeius’ ordering of the East, thirty years before. Precisely as in the system of Antonius, f

t in the decade after Actium—or less relevant to the history of those years . Octavianus had his own ideas. It might be inexpe

y. The martial glory of the renascent state was also supported in the years following by the triumphs of men prominent in the

of M. Agrippa. 2 Dio 51, 23, 2 ff. His two campaigns belong to the years 29 and 28. 3 C Norbanus Flaccus, cos. 38 B.C.,

try might provoke disquiet. When the Triumvir Antonius abode for long years in the East men might fear lest the city be dethr

death as the god Quirinus. Full honour was done to the founder in the years after Actium. Caesar had set his own statue in th

tion of the Triumvirate, even though that despotic office had expired years before: in law the only power to which he could a

might have been different. 1 There is a mysterious calamity in these years unexplained in cause, obscure in date. C. Corneli

d also and very truly Dux, as the poetical literature of the earliest years of the new dispensation unequivocally reveals. Ri

le world consented to assume a special commission for a period of ten years , in the form of proconsular authority over a larg

y, but a Roman magistrate, invested with special powers for a term of years . NotesPage=>314 1 Dio 53, 16, 8: ὡς καί πλ

acedonia, where armed proconsuls are definitely attested in the early years of the Principate. Nor is the information provide

f casuistry and the practice of public debate had languished for long years . Certain precedents of the recent past were so

rthrowing the Republic and proscribing the Republicans: in his mature years the statesman stole their heroes and their vocabu

of Trojan descent and the obsession with Romulus, prevalent for some years in the aftermath of Actium, gradually recede and

re than the memory and the oratory of Cicero was revived some fifteen years after his death has been maintained by scholars a

58 ff. PageBook=>319 the political doctrine of Cicero. In the years of failure and dejection he composed a treatise,

incipate baffles definition. The ‘constitutional’ settlement of the years 28 and 27 B.C. was described in official language

on should operate unhampered—and that it did, at least in the earlier years of his presidency. 5 Augustus’ purpose was just t

posed himself to be consul without intermission. During the next four years his colleagues were T. Statilius Taurus, M. Juniu

their garrison was a great army of twenty legions or more. In recent years these provinces had been governed by proconsuls,

me eleven viri triumphales. Some of the military men were advanced in years , namely the senior consular Calvinus, the two sur

aetus and Sex. Appuleius. PageBook=>328 in his old age, twenty years from his consulate. It was Sex. Appuleius, a kins

eps. 1 Nor are the other consuls of the age of the Revolution and the years between Actium and the first constitutional settl

ot a single nobilis can be found among his legates in the first dozen years , and hardly any consulars. Likewise in so far a

mitted, however, that full lists of provincial governors in the early years of the Principate of Augustus are not to be had.

and Asia, were governed by proconsuls of consular rank. In the early years it might be expected that from time to time men o

s of Augustus, all novi homines. 2 Under the Triumvirate and in the years after Actium partisans of Augustus governed the p

ps east and west, six names are attested as legates in the first four years of the new dispensation (27- 23 B.C.). 5 NotesP

nct political advantages. Caesar the Dictator intended to spend three years in the Balkans and the East, not merely for warfa

. Cn. Domitius Calvinus had governed Spain during a difficult three years (39-36 B.C.); 2 Calvinus and five proconsuls af

to Rome towards the middle of 24 B.C. He had been away about three years : Rome was politically silent, with no voice or te

rinciple, if such existed, or private dislike. Yet even so, only four years earlier, one of the closest of the associates of

Augustus were a sudden warning. The catastrophe was near. For some years , fervent and official language had celebrated the

the Ides of March, the proscriptions and Philippi were barely twenty years distant. The corruption of ancient virtue and the

ssion which was carefully conveyed by their definition to a period of years . The assumption of a colleague confirmed this fai

of the year, proconsular imperium was conferred upon Agrippa for five years . The exact nature and competence of the grant is

thority over all the East in 23 B.C. can be urged the fact that a few years later, in 20 and 19 B.C., Agrippa is found, not t

was abandoned. There were less spectacular and more urgent tasks. Two years before, Amyntas, the ruler of Galatia, in the exe

ast. 5 So much for the settlement of 23 B.C. It was only twenty-one years from the removal of a Dictator and the rebirth of

rom the removal of a Dictator and the rebirth of Libertas, twenty-one years from the first coup d’état of Caesar’s heir. Libe

L. Sempronius Atratinus triumphed from Africa in 21 B.C., Balbus two years later for his raid into the land of the distant a

of the reforms that Rome expected and for which Rome had to wait five years longer. Again Augustus put off the task, consciou

79, 2. 2 Tiberius was permitted in 24 B.C. to stand for office five years earlier than the legal term (Dio 53, 28, 3), beco

not merely dynastic, but in his own family and of his own blood. Two years earlier the marriage of his nephew to his only da

dy in 23 the young man was aedile; and he would get the consulate ten years earlier than the legal provision. 1 Marcellus mig

79, 2. 2 Tiberius was permitted in 24 B.c. to stand for office five years earlier than the legal term (Dio 53, 38, 3), beco

n to rule it. Already the temporary severance of East and West in the years between the Pact of Brundisium and the War of Act

be achieved, might clamour for competent rulers over a long period of years . The extended commands of the late Republic and t

peians, never reached the consulate, Cinna not until more than thirty years had elapsed. But some perished or disappeared. No

t, he instituted a bounty, paid in money. 4 Soldiers dismissed in the years 7-2 B.C. received in all no less than four hundre

enturions had no monopoly of long service certain knights, active for years on end, won merit and experience with the army co

y and with graded honours. 1 C. Velleius Paterculus passed some eight years as tribunus militum and praefectus equitum. 2 Oth

gions; but the Prefect of Egypt found peer and parallel in the middle years of Augustus’ rule when a pair of Roman knights wa

a Caecina, unmistakable in their non-Latin termination. 5 In the last years , however (A.D. 4-14), a significant phenomenon th

t from these two men (and Quirinius and Valgius) there are in all the years 15 B.C. A.D. 3 very few consuls who are not of co

ction of Caesar’s heir numbered hardly a single senator; in its first years , few of distinction. What more simple than to ass

recovered from its enemies or from its friends. Augustus in the first years masked or palliated some of its maladies at least

m, but the son of a Roman knight commonly had to wait for a number of years . Which was fitting. Knights themselves would not

s. His will prevailed, in virtue of auctoritas. 3 In the first four years of the new dispensation Augustus kept a tight gra

s removed by violence. A certain Egnatius Rufus when aedile several years before had organized his private slaves and other

4 NotesPage=>371 1 Dio 54, 6, 2 ff. Consular elections in the years 22–19 B.C. are very puzzling. It almost looks as

ry different from the firm order that had prevailed in the first four years of the Principate. Riots in Rome could not imperi

ir revolutionary rule shows itself clearly on the Fasti. In the seven years 39-33 nineteen novi homines appear as against nin

the Civil Wars had missed the consulate. Here and on the Fasti of the years following are to be discovered the aristocrats wh

the supreme magistracy of the Roman Republic. The Fasti in the middle years of his Principate recall the splendour of that la

ul. After 19 B.C., down to and including 6 B.C., a period of thirteen years , only four are recorded, two of them caused by de

n military commands which the developed system could show in the last years of the Princeps’ life. Not until 5 B.C. do suffec

rise to the consulate. 4 With so few suffect consulates in the early years of the Principate, competition was acute and inte

r of the moderate Caesarian P. Servilius, the youth proceeded in four years through a constrained and unconsummated union wit

ointed by lot at all, certain of the military proconsuls in the early years of the Principate, such as Balbus in Africa, P. S

1 NotesPage=>387 1 Cf. above, p. 197. PageBook=>388 The years before Actium filled up the gaps. The Senate whic

tus had set out for the West without delay; and of the first fourteen years of his Principate the greater part was spent abro

on on his travels again and back at his work. After a sojourn of four years as vicegerent of the East, Agrippa came to Rome i

Augustus newly returned from Spain and Gaul. During the last fourteen years , they had seldom been together in the same place.

ius Crassus greatly augmented the province of Macedonia. In the first years of the Principate the imperial frontier on the no

m Galatia with an army, was occupied in the Balkans for three arduous years . 3 So it was Tiberius, as legate of Illyricum, no

ho subdued the Pannonians and Dalmatians (12-9 B.C.). 4 In the same years Drusus with the legions of the Rhine and the le

5 ff.; Velleius 2, 98; Livy, Per. 140; Seneca, Epp. 83, 14. The three years of the Bellum Thracicum are either 13–11 or 12–10

t;392 When Agrippa, deputy and son-in-law of the Princeps, died six years before, Augustus appeared to stand alone, sustain

never again left Italy. Agrippa had been indispensable in the earlier years , as deputy wherever Augustus happened not to be,

ove all, there is a singular lack of historical evidence for the nine years in which Tiberius was absent from the service of

ies to the viri triumphales of the revolutionary period. After twenty years they were growing old or had disappeared: a new c

e for the needs of warfare and government. In the first and tentative years of the new dispensation Augustus held the territo

been as small as the single legion that remained there from the last years of Augustus onwards; 1 and although no proconsul

t stage in the pacification of the Balkans (c. 9 B.C.,) or some dozen years later, the legions of Macedonia were removed from

3 When both Illyricum and the Rhine army had been divided in the last years of the Principate, there existed seven military c

eriod, cf. JRS XXIV (1934), 113 ff., with an inclination to the later years . It could, however, be urged that the new command

Asia might be his by the working of the lot after an interval of five years . But favour could secure curtailment of legal pre

ly for princes of the blood. Ahenobarbus was proconsul of Africa four years after his consulate; 2 Paullus Fabius Maximus and

s governed Asia after an even shorter interval, perhaps of barely two years . 3 As for his own province, the Princeps was not

he resentment of an Ahenobarbus when Caesar monopolized Gaul for many years . It does not follow that the wars waged by nobles

equestrian officer might turn out to be a valuable person, with long years of continuous service, skilled to lead native cav

from Picenum, C. Poppaeus Sabinus (cos. A.D. 9). During twenty-five years this man had charge of Moesia, for most of the ti

e was summoned to Thrace with an army, where he was engaged for three years ; after that, he was proconsul of Asia; 7 subseque

desert dwelling to the south of Cyrene. 1 At some time in the twelve years after his consulate Quirinius governed Galatia an

of Lollius, Quirinius took his place with C. Caesar. 3 Three or four years later he was appointed legate of Syria, in which

In that year the Pannonians and Dalmatians rose in revolt. As twenty years before in the Thracian War of Piso, so now the Ba

, in a great battle all but disastrous for Rome, and remained for two years at the head of his army till the insurgents were

r of legionary soldiers, their service expired, were dismissed in the years 7-2 B.C. But no ground was lost during the decade

4). On the contrary, expeditions were made across the Danube in these years , the tribes beyond the river were intimidated and

and Cn. Cornelius Lentulus. 4 The situation in the Balkans in these years is doubly obscure. The army of Macedonia may stil

its of victory to the construction of roads and public buildings. The years before the final struggle witnessed a grandiose s

. he secured the appointment of a pair of censors, the first for many years . They were Plancus and Paullus Aemilius Lepidus,

which he desired and which he was himself compelled to undertake four years later. Plancus and Lepidus resigned before the ye

. 8, Dio 55, 33, 5. 8 Tacitus, Ann. 6, 11. PageBook=>404 Ten years later, when Augustus departed on his second visit

Κυρηναϊκ ν παρχήαν καθ- ξοντ∈ςκτλ. 5 In 19 B.C., but only for a few years , after which Augustus established an imperial min

e persisted throughout his reign, being especially useful in the last years , when the Princeps seldom cared to enter the Curi

Strabo, a personal friend of the Princeps, won prominence in the late years of Augustus. Seius was Prefect of the Guard in A.

rt along with the diplomatic Plancus. It was Messalla who twenty-five years later introduced the decree of the Senate naming

een Cn. Domitius Calvinus, the oldest surviving consular in the early years of the Principate. 4 NotesPage=>411 1 Obse

augury, may still have been alive. Messalla was augur for fifty-five years (Macrobius 1, 9, 14). PageBook=>412 A sace

or. In the same year as Maecenas, Horace died: Virgil had gone eleven years before. In the last period of Augustus’ rule, lit

.C. Tiberius was granted the tribunicia potestas for a period of five years yet even this hardly meant the succession. The me

t his expense and at the expense of the Roman People. In the last six years , Tiberius had hardly been seen in Rome; and there

t came out. Gaius was to have the consulate after an interval of five years (that is, in A.D. I); and three years later the s

ulate after an interval of five years (that is, in A.D. I); and three years later the same distinction was proclaimed for Luc

r the same distinction was proclaimed for Lucius, his junior by three years . The Senate voted Gaius this unprecedented dispen

vily on the loyalty and tried merit of certain novi homines. For many years nothing had been heard of Lollius and Vinicius. T

. In 5 B.C. Augustus assumed that office, after a lapse of eighteen years , with L. Cornelius Sulla as his colleague. From t

rii, though escaping notice in the politics and the scandals of these years . Messalla still lived on; and he had something of

ver happened to be the government of Rome now had their turn for nine years . Livia waited and worked for her family, patient

ng the Danubian and Balkan armies, now appeared in the East. For some years disturbances in Armenia, a land over which August

government since Agrippa the vicegerent departed from the East twelve years before. In the meantime, able men had governed Sy

is evident, and it is demonstrated by another incident nearly twenty years later, that the task of controlling a crown princ

erits, with pointed contrast and vituperation of Lollius, dead twenty years before, but not forgotten. Lollius, he said, wa

gh the climacteric year of a man’s life, the sixty-third. 3 Not three years passed and Gaius was dead. After composing the re

pious prayers were answered almost at once by famine, pestilence and years of warfare, with grave disasters. 3 lb. 2, 121,

ambitious design, fully engaging the attention of Tiberius for three years (A.D. 6-9). Then Germany rose. Varus and three le

and three legions perished. Rome did not see her new master for many years . The adoption of Tiberius should have brought s

allustius. 2 The time for such exciting speculations had passed ten years before. The government party among the aristocrac

es discernible, dual in composition, as might be expected. In the six years following the return to power of Tiberius, along

arge of Moesia (now that Macedonia had lost its army). 2 In the three years of the rebellion of Illyricum the following consu

of agriculture, had transformed the economy of Italy. Over a hundred years earlier, the decline of the military population h

bus ambae invictae gentes aeterna in foedera mittant. 6 In the same years the historian Livy was already at work upon the m

young or abandoned the art altogether. Ovid, his junior by about ten years , outlasted Augustus and died in exile at the age

he mailed figure from Prima Porta, showing the Princeps in his middle years , firm and martial but melancholy and dedicated to

ax Augusta should be set up. The monument was dedicated three or four years later. On its sculptured panels could be seen the

followed by a rising which Varus the governor of Syria put down. Ten years later, when Archelaus the ethnarch was deposed, A

s; 3 but the Dalmatians and Pannonians, incompletely conquered twenty years before, would have risen again at the earliest op

Pompeius the people arose in indignation and drove him forth. 8 Many years later that edifice witnessed a similar spectacle.

in the clubs and salons of the aristocracy, becoming wilder with the years , as despotism grew more secretive and more repres

ges, explaining that they would be read after his death. 4 The last years of Augustus witnessed stern measures of repressio

he island of Crete (A.D. 12?). 3 Even there he was a nuisance: twelve years later they removed him to the barren rock of Seri

9 C. Calpurnius Piso, cos. A.D. III (PIR2, C 285) and consuls sixty years later (PIR2, C 295 and 317). PageBook=>498

only. 3 Nor are the new families ennobled for loyal service in the years of peace and the Principate always rich in offspr

m Nemausus, descendants of native families long enfranchised. 1 A few years , and Seneca the Corduban and Sex. Afranius Burrus

still brought the consulate as of right, and after a long interval of years the proconsulate of Asia or of Africa. For all el

d was suppressed, came another nobilis, Ser. Sulpicius Galba. 1 A few years pass, however, and among the army commanders of C

nsable that was the greatest triumph of all. Had he died in the early years of the Principate, his party would have survived,

als. But Augustus lived on, a progressive miracle of duration. As the years passed, he emancipated himself more and more from

ed his first consulate after the march on Rome. Since then, fifty-six years had elapsed. Throughout, in act and policy, he

SULS 80 B.C.–A.D. 14 PageBook=>525 THE consular Fasti of the years 509 B.C.-A.D. 14 were edited and published in CIL

, pp. 199 f., 235, 243 f.). It is of decisive value for the following years : 39 B.C. C. Cocceius (Balbus), already known as

, 419 ff.; disgrace of Julia, 426 f.; adoption of Tiberius, 431; last years , 431 ff.; last acts, 433, 438 f.; death and deifi

s, 374 ff.; elections, 370 f. Consuls, after Sulla, 22; in the last years of the Republic, 94; under Caesar’s Dictatorship,

are printed in black type. On Tables I and II the dates are given in years B.C. II. THE KINSMEN OF CATO This table repro