emory of his earlier days, Augustus the Princeps, who was born in the year of Cicero’s consulate, lived to see the grandson

rincipate had already taken shape, firm and manifest, as early as the year 23 B.C., so that a continuous narrative may run d

l activity when he raised up Caesar’s heir against Antonius. The last year of Cicero’s life, full of glory and eloquence no

llio, however, chose the consulate of Metellus and Afranius, in which year the domination of that dynast was established (60

e that the Principate of the Julii and Claudii was a tyranny, tracing year by year from Tiberius down to Nero the merciless

he Principate of the Julii and Claudii was a tyranny, tracing year by year from Tiberius down to Nero the merciless extincti

his domination. Sulla resigned power after a brief tenure. Another year and he was dead (78 B.C.). The government which

atilina. The consulate, gained by the successful in the forty-third year , marked the acme of a man’s life and often change

elections to the People: he was elected pontifex maximus in the next year . The son therefore inherited ‘urbana gratia’ (Cae

e and hazardous means of the tribunate. Yet two men stood out in this year of another’s consulate and public glory, shaming

the religion of the Roman State, that of pontifex maximus. 5 The same year furnished an added testimony of his temper. When

he great imperator, returning, landed in Italy towards the end of the year 62 B.C. with prestige unparalleled and the armi

lli (Celer and Nepos) and certain of the Cornelii Lentuli. 3 In the year of Cicero’s consulate Q. Metellus Celer was praet

d by the praetor Caesar, Nepos went on with his proposals in the next year , causing bitter opposition from leaders of the go

orator as well as a soldier. 5 Pompeius set all his hopes on the next year . By scandalous bribery he secured the election of

us: by holding aloof he enhanced his price. Now, in the summer of the year , Caesar stood for the consulate backed by Crassus

with Pompeius, to satisfy the ambitions of all three, and turned the year named after the consuls Metellus and Afranius int

Metellus and Afranius into a date heavy with history. 5 In the next year the domination of Pompeius Magnus was openly reve

consulate was only the beginning. To maintain the legislation of that year , and perpetuate the system, Pompeius needed armie

soon added. Further, the three rulers designated consuls for the next year , L. Calpurnius Piso, a cultivated aristocrat with

n reigned, and disorder, with suspension of public business. The next year opened without consuls. Similar but worse was the

utarch, Pompeius 54). But there were strong and authentic rumours the year before, cf. Ad Q. fratrem 3, 8, 4. 2 Milo was a

tion, and chose him as colleague for the remaining five months of the year . A new combination was ready to form, with the

and sought by a trick to annul the law passed by the tribunes of the year conceding to Caesar the right to stand for the co

ate on Caesar’s command was postponed till March 1st of the following year . Pompeius remained ambiguous, with hints of going

solemn duty. 3 The legion was not withdrawn, however, until the next year , along with another previously lent by Pompeius t

count on tribunes. C. Scribonius Curio, a vigorous orator, began the year as a champion of the government, but soon showed

Antonius and other adherents of Caesar, elected tribunes for the next year , promised to continue the tactics of Curio. In

Creticus (69) c. 54, L. Metellus(68) in his consulate, Celer (60) the year after his, Nepos (57) c. 54. 3 L. Cornelius Sci

ower. The Pact of Luca blocked him from his consulate, but only for a year . He had another grievance Caesar’s tenure of Gaul

8. PageBook=>045 consular rank. 1 With the consuls of the last year of the Republic conveniently added, the array is

the consulate in absence and retain his province until the end of the year 49 B.C. are still matters of controversy. 1 If th

eace. 2 In all, twenty-six men of consular standing were alive in the year of Pharsalus. The Pompeians deducted, fourteen re

ted by the elaborate excuses of his advocate. At the beginning of the year 56 B.C. the alliance of Pompeius, Crassus and Cae

resumed that he had a hand in the pact of 60 B.C. In December of that year he sought to bring Cicero into it, Ad Att. 2, 3,

&c. Some versions of the legend put the immigration in the sixth year of the Republic, others in the regal period. For

(a Tusculan consul who deserted and became consul at Rome in the same year ). On the Plautii, Münzer, RA, 44. 2 W. Schur, H

s. suff. 45). PageBook=>095 With the designations for the next year , Hirtius and Pansa, the level of social eminence

or’s secretary and confidant, Hirtius, designated consul for the next year , and Lepidus the Master of the Horse, now left in

ad, Dolabella an uncertain factor. The consuls designate for the next year , NotesPage=>099 1 Ad Att. 14, 10, 1 2 lb

e plebs, and after Pharsalus, as Master of the Horse, for more than a year . The task was delicate, and Caesar may not have b

to take over a province in 44, and Antonius, elected consul for that year , would be left in charge of the government when C

To gain a fair estimate of the acts and intentions of Antonius in the year of his consulate, it will be necessary to forget

or to what Rome had learned to expect of the politician in power. His year of office would have to go far in violence and co

d his position and his person, especially when attacked, later in the year , by his enemies in a manner which on any theory o

of the government, and so unassailable by legal weapons. In the next year , with A. Hirtius and C. Vibius Pansa as consuls,

l less the respectable nonentities designated as consuls for the next year . Cato too was dead. Averse from compromise and fi

or the provinces, D. Brutus held Gallia Cisalpina for the rest of the year , a territory rich in resources and recruits and l

Brutus and Cassius to an extraordinary commission for the rest of the year : they were to superintend the collection of corn

d that Cisalpine Gaul should cease to be a province at the end of the year and be added to Italy. That would preclude compet

e resources that Octavianus gathered in late summer and autumn of the year . Men and money were the first thing, next the ski

coming untenable. If he lingered until the expiration of his consular year , he was lost. His enemies might win the provincia

rried through the allotment of praetorian provinces for the following year . Crete and Cyrene were taken from Brutus and Cass

ity and entered the province of Cisalpine Gaul. Before the end of the year he disposed his forces around the city of Mutina

ne post Agrippam quidem notus. ’ Agrippa was the same age to within a year as Octavianus, and is said to have been his schoo

hought of departing to Greece and remaining there till the end of the year , to return under happier auspices when Hirtius an

5 Ad fam. 16, 24, 2 of uncertain date, but fitting November of this year . 6 Ad Att. 16, 8, 1, cf. 16, 14, 2. 7 Ib. 16,

ained to lavish his treasures upon an unworthy object in April of the year 44 B.C. he wrote to Dolabella a letter which offe

ion can be legitimate and laudable. De gloria was written in the same year as a pendant to De officiis. 4 Cicero defined the

ce for the personal safety of the new consuls on the first day of the year , when momentous transactions were announced as th

ermitted him to take over the province before the end of his consular year . Nothing extraordinary in that. Compare, in the n

is consular year. Nothing extraordinary in that. Compare, in the next year , what P. Lentulus says (Ad fam. 12, 14, 5): ‘qua

rators there was still no certain knowledge at Rome at the end of the year . That they would in fact not go to their trivial

have vacated their consular provinces, that is, until the end of the year 39 B.C., probably the date originally named in th

ir funds4 for the salvation of the State, no doubt. By the end of the year almost all Macedonia was in his hands; and not on

ed, coming up with two legions from Hispania Ulterior. Earlier in the year he had complained that the Senate sent him no ins

the young Caesar to resign the office he had seized. The rest of the year was given to P. Ventidius and C. Carrinas, a pair

Lepidus himself, however, was to have a second consulate in the next year , with Plancus as his colleague. For 41 B.C. were

of the maritime command assigned to him by the Senate earlier in the year for the war against Antonius. NotesPage=>189

stetit, ea iudicandum de homine est. ’ 2 Pardon and return after a year is attested by ILS 8393. 3 Nepos, Vita Attici 9

n of the census of a Roman knight; 1 and at the beginning of the next year a fresh list was drawn up, confiscating real prop

ors were created by Caesar, a rational and even necessary reform: one year of the Triumvirate witnessed no fewer than sixty-

uced the practice of nominating several pairs of consuls for a single year and designating them a long time in advance. Of

ecalling the days when Cinna was dominant at Rome. In December of the year 44 B.C. the Senate had been able to count only

ing in health or remote from political interests. 2 The interval of a year carried off three, Ser. Sulpicius Rufus, Treboniu

B.C.; 4 a Triumvir’s uncle, C. Antonius, becomes censor in the same year ; then both disappear. 5 Two honest men, L. Piso a

Marcius Crispus, if he be the Marcius who also was cos. suff. in that year . Nothing is known of the services to the Triumvir

cently passed his twentieth birthday: Agrippa’s age was the same to a year . Salvidienus, the earliest and greatest of his ma

PHILIPPI AND PERUSIA PageBook=>202 ON the first day of the new year Senate and magistrates took a solemn oath to main

, crossing into Asia, he met Cassius at Smyrna towards the end of the year 43. Cassius had a success to report. He had encou

resources and raising more money: so several months of the following year were spent in chastising Rhodians and Lycians and

erge in strength and triumph from the varied hazards of this eventful year . The eighteen cities of Italy marked down to sa

p. 11, 400 ff. 3 Appian, BC 5, 60, 251. PageBook=>209 As the year advanced the situation grew steadily worse. The s

who had adopted an ambiguous and threatening attitude earlier in the year . For a time he refused to let Salvidienus pass th

tidius and the diplomatic Plancus, and one consul for the illustrious year of Pollio had begun. Yet Octavianus was in no w

that he had no cognizance when he arrived at Tyre in February of the year 40, but learned only after his departure, when sa

mination of Antonius, deserted and proscribed his associates before a year had passed; again, at Perusia, he stamped out the

fant son by the opportune death of her husband, C. Marcellus, in this year . Such was the Pact of Brundisium, the new Caesa

of Brundisium, the new Caesarian alliance formed in September of the year which bore as its title the consulate of Pollio a

rposes of propaganda by the rulers of the world. Already coins of the year 43 B.C. bear symbols of power, fertility and the

e with Scribonia; Julia, his only daughter, was born in the following year . But there was a more important pact than the d

r long, for a new pair of consuls was installed before the end of the year , Balbus the millionaire from Gades, emerging agai

r that. But Octavianus had designated him as consul for the following year . The next NotesPage=>220 1 Ecl. 4, 17. 2

ies, the Triumvirs and Pompeius met near Puteoli in the summer of the year 39: they argued, bargained, and banqueted on the

s Censorinus as proconsul of Macedonia; 3 and on the first day of the year 39 Censorinus inaugurated his consulship with a t

Censorinus inaugurated his consulship with a triumph. 4 Later in the year NotesPage=>222 1 Below, p. 227. 2 On the

had already been made by Antonius. During the course of the following year they were modified and completed. It will be conv

vited Antonius to come to Italy for a conference in the spring of the year 38. Antonius arrived at Brundisium, but not findi

d by the Lex Titia had already run out with the close of the previous year . Nobody had bothered about that. The Triumvirate

. Antonius departed for Syria. From Corcyra in the late summer of the year he sent Octavia back to Italy. He may already hav

te. 5 Peace was not kept for long upon the Italian seas. Before the year was out mutual accusations of bad faith were conf

of the other branch, Ap. Claudius Pulcher, one of the consuls of the year . 5 One of the suffect consuls was L. Marcius Ph

with useful achievements to his credit and the consulate for the next year as his reward, did not choose to hold the triumph

tonius was induced to come to Tarentum in the spring of the following year (37). The uneasy alliance was then perpetuated. A

harbour at the Lucrine Lake beside Puteoli in the Bay of Naples. The year 37 passed in thorough preparations. There was to

y the services of three friends. Agrippa held the praetorship in that year , but Maecenas and Salvidienus were not even senat

record of his activity, and governor of all Spain for Octavianus the year after. No other nobilis can be found holding mi

the Palatine he had already dedicated a temple in 36 B.C. In the same year Cn. Domitius Calvinus, victorious from Spain, r

y perhaps be detected in the composition of the consular list of that year , of unprecedented length: it contains seven other

m the families of the Claudii, the Aemilii and the Scipiones. In this year the admiral Q. Laronius became consul; the other

rom the region of Picenum, and of C. Memmius, consuls in the previous year . 3 To distribute consulates and triumphs as pat

er but not in dignity, recent creations almost all. By the end of the year 33 B.C. they numbered over thirty, a total withou

ff. 38. 3 Not only Messalla himself, consul with Octavianus for the year 31, but two Valerii, suffect consuls in 32 and 29

. Fonteius brought her to Antioch, where they spent the winter of the year 37-36 in counsel and carouse. 1 The invasion of M

and a tetrarch’s wife, his own daughter. 3 But Deiotarus died in the year of the Parthian invasion. 4 In this emergency m

the Triumvirs invested Herod the Idumaean with insignia of royalty. A year later the Galatian Amyntas (formerly secretary to

discredit of their old general. 2 Antonius was delayed in the next year by the arrival of Sex. Pompeius in Asia and by th

s’ alliance and marital life with the Queen of Egypt. The following year witnessed a turn of fortune in the northeast and

of Asia. 2 There the legions passed the winter of 33-32 B.C. In the year 33 B.C., with his frontiers in order and Asia at

utarch, Antonius 65). Q. Didius, attested as governor of Syria in the year 31 B.C. (Dio 51, 7, i), is otherwise unknown: per

ὶσαρα πάντα πєριєλθєîν. Ch. XX TOTA ITALIA PageBook=>276 THE year 33 B.C. opened with Octavianus as consul for the

f compromise, no act or thought. Octavianus moved first. Early in the year he delivered a speech before the Senate, criticiz

ratification to a document which he dispatched before the end of the year to the consuls designate, Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbu

ssed: it was to be imparted to the Senate on the first day of the new year . So far official documents and public manifesto

Domitius were only eleven years from Hirtius and Pansa. Then the new year had been eagerly awaited, for it brought a chance

vinus, and L. Cornelius Cinna, grandson of Sulla’s enemy. In the next year he would be consul with Corvinus, instead of Anto

of oriental despotism. Bibulus, the proconsul of Syria, died in this year , but the rest of the Catonian faction under Aheno

lands when the war was over. 2 In the constitutional crisis of the year 32, the consuls and a show of legality were on th

y cannot have arisen, total and immediate, from the plebiscite of the year 32: that act was but the beginning of the work th

are Antonius stripped of his powers and of the consulate for the next year . That office he allotted to an aristocratic parti

Calvisius on May 26th, Autronius on August 16th, probably of the same year : Autronius may not have been the immediate succes

earned. Then came the reckoning with Antonius. In the summer of the year 30 B.C. Octavianus approached Egypt from the side

the service of the victor. 4 Antonius and his consort spent nearly a year after the disaster in the last revels, the last i

gypt was C. Cornelius Gallus, a Roman knight. 5 For the rest of the year 30 and the winter following the conqueror proceed

Dyrrhachium, ILS 2678. 5 Taurus in Spain, Dio 51, 20, 5 (under the year 29 B.C.). Calvisius held his triumph on May 26th,

ia soon after Actium(Josephus, AJ 16, 171), perhaps for more than one year ; and a certain Thorius Flaccus, otherwise unknown

sul for the sixth time with Agrippa as his colleague. In the previous year he had augmented the total of the patrician famil

cern to men at the time. From 31 B.C onwards he had been consul every year . But that was not all. The young despot not only

ord would be likely to survive, when an important public event of the year has barely been preserved, let alone understood i

f Gallus episodically and not in clear chronological order, under the year 26 B.C.: his account of the procedure (53, 23, 7)

ion had arisen. But Augustus was to be consul as well as proconsul, year after year without a break. The supreme magistrac

sen. But Augustus was to be consul as well as proconsul, year after year without a break. The supreme magistracy, though p

ence—it was not long ago—the political activity of Cicero in the last year of his life. The smooth Plancus no doubt acquiesc

loyal service—he was granted in 30 B.C. the right of nominating each year one member of the board of praetors. 2 A noble, b

d a natural development. No new system was suddenly introduced in the year 27 B.C.—Augustus’ men should be described as lega

as proconsuls when praetorian in rank. 4 Augustus was consul every year down to 23 B.C.; he therefore possessed a voice i

stor in 45 B.C., he joined the Liberators at the end of the following year (above, p. 171). 2 Namely Varro, legate in Syri

rovinces of the West, setting out from Rome towards the middle of the year 27. In absence, distinct political advantages. Ca

g through the south of Gaul he arrived in Spain before the end of the year . Two centuries had elapsed since the armies of

and all but preclude the attempt to reconstruct the true history of a year that might well have been the last, and was certa

that Murena was consul ordinarius in 23 B.C. All the others head the year with the suffectus, Cn. Calpurnius Piso. 4 Dio

s M. Vipsanius Agrippa, thrice consul. This was the settlement of the year 23 B.C. Augustus resolved to refrain from holdi

C. Augustus resolved to refrain from holding the supreme magistracy year by year. In the place of the consulate, which gav

ustus resolved to refrain from holding the supreme magistracy year by year . In the place of the consulate, which gave him a

law. No trace hitherto of their employment. 3 It was not until this year that the Princeps thought of exerting tribunicia

). It is reasonable enough to suppose that the powers granted in this year were sanctioned by the passing of a lex de imperi

umption of a colleague confirmed this fair show. In the course of the year , proconsular imperium was conferred upon Agrippa

ned his powers when he appeared to divide them. Before the end of the year he dispatched Agrippa to the East. An invasion of

the establishment of the Empire might suitably be reckoned from this year . The legal and formal changes have been summari

us, C. Antistius Vetus, made consul with Cicero’s bibulous son in the year after Actium: no pretence of Republic then. Nor w

ps intended that Secular Games should be celebrated precisely in that year ; 5 and it is at least remarkable that certain Ode

most intimate friends of the real or nominal leader. In the critical year of Murena’s conspiracy and Augustus’ all but fata

er than the legal term (Dio 53, 28, 3), becoming quaestor in the next year . PageBook=>341 Even had they not been the

er than the legal term (Dio 53, 38, 3), becoming quaestor in the next year . PageBook=>342 The Roman loathed the effem

PageBook=>343 Some at least of the perils which this critical year revealed might be countered if Augustus silenced

nces honoured Augustus as their patron and their defender. 2 In the year 29 B.C., about the time of his triumph, Octavianu

a man became eligible to assume the quaestorship in his twenty-fifth year , the consulate in his thirty-third with alleviati

ave hoped to renew the work in 22 B.C.: he delayed until 18 B.C., the year of the introduction of the new moral code, when,

m men’s eyes one of the visible evidences of military despotism. Next year Augustus himself set out on a tour of the eastern

ext best thing, leaving vacant one of the two consulates for the next year , 21 B.C. Two nobiles then contended, L. Junius Si

s finally elected. 1 After an interval the same trouble recurred. The year 19 B.C. opened with Augustus still absent, and on

ears 22–19 B.C. are very puzzling. It almost looks as though, in each year , Augustus had filled one place with his own candi

ger in Rome itself. During the absence of the ruler (22-19 B.C.) each year one of the two consuls had been a partisan of Aug

a and C. Sentius Saturninus; and when Saturninus resigned late in the year 19 B.C. he was replaced by M. Vinicius, another o

ustus’ successor, no doubt in virtue of his final instructions. 1 The year A.D. 14 marks the legal termination of the Republ

revailed and designated its candidates, often in advance, to the very year . It took the compact of Luca to rob L. Domitius A

rve the dignity of their station and propagate their families. In the year A.D. 4 he thus augmented the census of no fewer

ain under the new dispensation his right to designate a praetor every year , that did not matter. There were other ways. Th

egion. 3 The four emperors who followed Nero in the space of a single year were all persons conspicuous and influential at C

were only seventeen consulars alive, mostly of no consequence. By the year of Pollio, at the time of the Pact of Brundisium,

of the agents of the drama of 23 B.C. could have foreseen. Before the year was out, Marcellus, the nephew of the Princeps an

yal and unequivocal as the Roman People was led to believe. In this year a public monument called the Ara Pacis was solemn

erial and a better tradition took their place. Augustus in the same year promulgated regulations of pay and service which

there and suppressing the mountaineers of Isauria (A.D. 6). 5 In that year the Pannonians and Dalmatians rose in revolt. As

=>401 1 Probably not Ahenobarbus, attested here by Dio under the year 1 B.C. (55, 10a, 3): possibly Saturninus, if an e

o undertake four years later. Plancus and Lepidus resigned before the year was out. NotesPage=>402 1 Suetonius, Divus

iber and the prevention of floods was entrusted to the consuls of the year 8 B.C.; the first standing commission dates from

sion of three members in A.D. 6, or the two curatores annonae of that year and the next, whose function passed at once to an

inevitable impermanence, restricted as they were to six months of the year , shows clearly that it was a committee, not a cab

n State was placed (in 23 B.C.) under the charge of two praetors each year , chosen by lot. 6 The finances of a great empire

government, Maecenas knew no peer and left no successor. In the same year as Maecenas, Horace died: Virgil had gone eleven

21 B.C. the marriage of Agrippa and Julia was solemnized. In the next year a son was born, named Gaius. When a second son, L

disapproval and bided his time with secret exultation. 3 In the next year it came out. Gaius was to have the consulate afte

f the New State would have reached the consulate in his thirty- third year , like his peers in that generation of nobiles. Pr

magistracy of the Roman People upon an untried youth in the twentieth year of his age, that was much more than a contradicti

th the two boys, the one in his fourteenth, the other in his eleventh year . The Princeps had broken loose from the Caesarian

f eighteen years, with L. Cornelius Sulla as his colleague. From that year the practice of appointing more than one pair of

long been anomalous. It now became doubtful and perilous. In the next year his tribunicia potestas lapsed. Augustus did not

ut magnified beyond all measure by his detractors. 5 In the following year Augustus came to Gaul, Tiberius with him. Tiberiu

n his son and heir was consul, he came safely through the climacteric year of a man’s life, the sixty-third. 3 Not three yea

omposing the relations of Rome and Parthia, in the course of the same year Gaius proceeded to settle order in the dependent

of L. Aemilius Paullus, husband of the younger Julia, belongs to this year . 4 Velleius 2, 102, 3 f.: ‘animum minus utilem

. He served with distinction under Tiberius in Illyricum, and in this year was governor of Hispania Citerior, at the head of

re of the post of praefectus urbi. 5 His successor, though only for a year , was L. Aelius Lamia, a lively old man who enjoye

ncipate. Certain formalities remained. On April 3rd of the previous year Augustus had drawn up his last will and testament

Secular Games in 22 B.C., disappointed perhaps in the censors of that year . He departed to the eastern provinces. At once on

rn provinces. At once on his return in 19 B.C., and again in the next year , he was offered the cura legum et morum, which he

de maritandis ordinibus and the Lex Julia de adulteriis, both of this year ; there were subsequent changes and additions, the

and additions, the most important being the Lex Papia Poppaea of the year A.D. 9.1 Regeneration was now vigorously at work

zen, guarded him from assassination for plots were discovered in this year , conspirators punished. 3 Legislation concerning

his zealous care for religion ’sacrati provida cura ducis’. 4 In the year 29 B.C. Janus was closed and an archaic ceremon

f Divus Julius vowed by the Triumvirs was at last dedicated. The next year saw the completion of the great temple of Apollo

ed their gratitude by crowding to the Capitol on the first day of the year and contributing small coins to a fund in honour

halo; and the omen of Romulus greeted his capture of Rome in the next year . Cicero in a political speech described his young

stus: a noticeable spread and intensification of the cult towards the year 2 B.C. reflects his overt designs for the success

beo in legal scholarship there was no doubt: he spent one half of the year instructing his pupils, the other in writing book

tius had died at his task, carrying his Historiae no farther than the year 67 B.C. Pollio, however, set himself to describe

to Junia Calvina, ‘festivissima puella’, who survived until the last year of the Emperor Vespasian. 2 PageNotes. 495 1

4 ff.) argues that it applies to families consular before A.D. 14 the year in which election by the people was abrogated. W.

iani (ib., p. 65). 38 B.C. The Cornelius who was cos. suff. in this year acquires a praenomen, Lucius, thus disproving the

d, 6; Horace’s Ode quoted, 6, 8; his Histories, 5 f., 484 ff.; on the year 60 B.C., 8; on Caesar, 6, 42, 484; on Cicero, 147