hose Caesar, his personal friend; and with Caesar he went through the wars from the passage of the Rubicon to the last battl

rapid. Three of the monarchic principes fell by the sword. Five civil wars and more in twenty years drained the life-blood o

orship, or even consulate. The lieutenants of Pompeius in the eastern wars comprised not only personal adherents like Afrani

am. 5, 2, 6). 3 For the full lists of Pompeius’ legates in. the two wars , cf. Drumann-Groebe, Gesch. Roms IV2, 420 ff.; 48

against the party that had attacked a proconsul who was fighting the wars of the Republic in the East. Sulla had all the am

of the State. It was too difficult. Instead, he would set out for the wars again, to Macedonia and to the eastern frontier o

ns, business men and provincials, kings and dynasts. Some fell in the wars , like Gabinius and Curio: the survivors expected

ribune of the plebs by Caesar in 44 B.C., had served under him in the wars , either as a centurion or as an equestrian office

ere once an observance of the Valerii; 3 and men could remember whole wars waged by a single clan. Such families might modif

ways was brutally accelerated by violence and confiscation, by civil wars , by the Dictatorship and by the Revolution. The r

ard was the Dictator’s war-chest, intended for the Balkan and eastern wars , it might be doubted whether much was still at Ro

n tribunes. The family appears to have sided with Marius in the civil wars , suffering in consequence. But they could not be

r a time at least, had control both of certain funds destined for the wars of the Dictator and of the annual tribute from th

ravation of discord and impulsion to the most irrational of all civil wars . 3 After March 17th, the sharp perception that

might honestly hold an unjust peace to be better than the justest of wars . Then the fair name lost credit. So much talk was

Hence the role of the words ‘pius’ and ‘pietas’ in the revolutionary wars . Pietas was the battle-cry of the Pompeians in th

nd the constitution, empty names. Roman discipline, inexorable in the wars of the State, had been entirely relaxed. The sold

ντας πολίτας. PageBook=>160 own head. After the end of all the wars the victor proclaimed that he had killed no citiz

nd the Liberators might even combine against their common enemy civil wars have witnessed stranger vicissitudes of alliance.

e worst of evils, worse even than submitting to tyranny. 3 In these wars between citizens, the generals and the politician

i; only practise a salutary severity, and there will be no more civil wars . 5 The plea of Brutus was plain and dignified. It

ister. Family ties had prevailed against political hostility in civil wars before now when waged by Roman nobles. 3 Lepidus

main. The Dictator’s provincial governors and commanders in his civil wars naturally fare better; 3 but two of them at least

r freed slaves might compete with knights for military command in the wars of the Revolution. 2 The Republic had been abol

colours of an ancient wrong. Political contests at Rome and the civil wars into which they degenerated were fought at the ex

he wealthy cities of Asia, the prey of both sides in Rome’s intestine wars . He exacted nine years’ tribute, to be paid in tw

Revolution. Like Balbus, he had held as yet no senatorial office the wars had hardly left time for that. But Octavianus had

her) or from a motive of family insurance not uncommon in the civil wars , when piety or protection might triumph over poli

ted his energies in the years 35 and 34 B.C. Antonius might fight the wars of the Republic or of private ambition far away i

for the peace that was to follow victory in the last of all the civil wars . NotesPage=>242 1 Dio 49, 42, 3; 43, 1 ff.

illing a solemn pledge, restore the Republic after the end of all the wars . Though a formidable body of interests was massed

tion and service in war. ‘Ex virtute nobilitas coepit. ’5 Then Rome’s wars against foreign enemies had augmented the aristoc

from politics, marked enough in the generation that had survived the wars of Marius and Sulla, now gained depth, strength a

of 50 B.C., he returned with Caesar, holding military command in the wars and governing a province. 1 The end of Caesar aba

and the levying of private armies, conscription of slaves and servile wars , unending contests in Sicily, Africa and Spain, s

mvirs men became intensely conscious of history, not merely of recent wars and monarchic faction-leaders like Sulla, Pompeiu

nuptials of Antonius, the peace of Brundisium and the end of all the wars . Maecenas hoped to employ Virgil’s art in the ser

productive beyond comparison; 1 Italy had barely been touched by the wars ; and it would have been an anachronism to revert

spread confusion over all the East and in the end brought on herself wars foreign and civil. To the population of the easte

ard Rome as their own capital, for the memory of old feuds and recent wars took long to die; and the true Roman in just prid

nd there by consummated the logical end of the factions, compacts and wars of the last thirty years, though liberty perished

war loosened the fabric of Roman rule. There were to be no more civil wars . So much for the East. It was never a serious p

in Illyricum, for the War of Actium and for the War of Alexandria—all wars of Rome against a foreign enemy. The martial glor

had not even begun. The duty could no longer be evaded on the plea of wars abroad or faction at home. Peace had been establi

y, a menace from geographical position and the memory of recent civil wars : yet Augustus graciously resigned them to procons

grant of such a mandate there was plenty of justification. The civil wars were over, but the Empire had not yet recovered f

and Macedonia were satisfactory; and Africa nourished her proverbial wars . Special commands were no novelty, no scandal.

nsulars who had governed vast provinces as proconsuls, who had fought wars under their own auspices and had celebrated trium

ulate of Africa with legions and the nominal hope of a triumph. 3 The wars of Augustus were waged in the main by men who rea

re dim figures compared with the poet who had commanded armies in the wars of the Revolution. 4 Syria was distant from Rome,

trate their independence, proconsuls of Africa were permitted to wage wars and to acquire military glory L. Sempronius Atrat

ent in counsel and ready for action. Agrippa had been through all the wars of the Revolution and had won most of them. With

ppellation of ‘comrades’ and enforced a sterner discipline than civil wars had tolerated. 2 But this meant no neglect. Augus

iving from common practice of the age of Pompeius, accelerated by the wars of the Revolution and the rule of the Triumvirate

y men, carrying on the tradition of the marshals of the revolutionary wars but not imposing so rapid and frequent a successi

riotism. The old families had been decimated by a generation of civil wars : the sons of the slain were found willing to make

ht the highest distinction to men whose youth had been trained in the wars of the Revolution and whose mature skill, directe

supplemented by Caesar, the patriciate had been reduced again in the wars , being represented in the Senate at the time of A

Ara Pacis was solemnly dedicated. 3 Peace called for new and greater wars . The legions were rejuvenated and disciplined, fo

ceps and for Empire. Who would there be now to prosecute the northern wars or govern the eastern world with special powers?

hole East; and he was intended to take supreme charge of the northern wars . Yet Tiberius and Drusus had filled the gap and

ica, a province of no little importance from its constant and arduous wars : the garrison may not always have been as small a

, the governors, being legally independent of the Princeps, conducted wars under their own auspices. But the Senate lost the

n Caesar monopolized Gaul for many years. It does not follow that the wars waged by nobles or politicians were always futile

m, Afranius, had served under his patron continuously, in the Spanish wars and against Mithridates. 3 He was one of the thre

e armies of Pompeius and Caesar and extended during the revolutionary wars . 7 NotesPage=>396 1 Among Piso’s legates w

most undisturbed peace on the frontiers. The historical record of the wars of Augustus is fragmentary and capricious. Design

could with accuracy and completeness be recovered, the full record of wars and generals in the north would reveal momentous

ple might declare war but the People did not decide against whom; the wars , however grandiose and arduous they might be, wer

PageBook=>413 It was not intended that there should be foreign wars in the East. But the needs of West and North were

w on the northern frontiers, natural if not necessary after the great wars of conquest, the effort of Rome did not flag or f

for politics and adventure two members of his family perished in the wars of Marius and Sulla; his grandfather, the enemy o

was a grandson of Magnus. By now the marshals of the revolutionary wars , Carrinas, Calvisius, Cornificius and others had

have changed the army commands. Most of the generals of the earlier wars of conquest were now dead, decrepit or retired, g

l, but not the character, of government. The same men who had won the wars of the Revolution now controlled the destinies of

me in the ruins. The apprehensions evoked by the long series of civil wars were only too well grounded. Actium had averted t

ly could be emancipated with ease but were emancipated in hordes. The wars of conquest flooded the market with captives of a

finest fighting material in Europe was now being exploited for Rome’s wars but not as regular troops. The legionary was more

going to their armies or thanksgiving when returning from successful wars . PageNotes. 470 1 Res Gestae 24. 2 Aen. 6,

r Actium, exclaims that he would have behaved precisely so in earlier wars , had it been possible. 4 As for Actium, men might

tspoken about the career of the Caesarian leader in the revolutionary wars . Messalla praised Brutus and Cassius; 1 but he

by loathing of the exuberant insincerity of public oratory and by the wars of the Revolution, which stripped away shams and

Roman writers. Like Sallustius, too, he turned with distaste from the wars and politics of his time and became a historian.

in the making of it, from the dynasts’ pact in 60 B.C. through civil wars and Dictatorship into the rule of the Triumvirs.

rtue but believed in ordered government, wrote a history of the civil wars that his own generation had witnessed. He had no

wine, Horace contemplates the possibility that Plancus may go to the wars again. 6 No chance of that: in the cool shade of

48). PageBook=>515 The Republic, with its full record of great wars abroad and political dissensions at home, was a s

r Roman or for provincial. The rewards were not so splendid as in the wars of the Revolution; but the rhythm, though abated,

he had made provision for his own immortality. 3 During the Spanish wars , when stricken by an illness that might easily ha

riod, 189, 213, 233; as a senatorial province, 314, 326 f., 330, 394; wars under Augustus, 339, 394, 401; governors, 110, 18

nts,498. Carthage, fall of, in relation to Roman history, 154, 249; wars against Carthage promote novi homines, 19, 238, 2

e of, 174. Forum Julii, 75, 252, 292, 367. Fraternization, in civil wars , 158 ff., 178 f., 217. Freedmen, sons of, in th

r, 128 f.; an Antonian, 266, 269; governor of Cyrene, 298. Pirates, wars against, 29, 31, 228. Pisa, patriotic town-coun

f., 455 f., 501 ff. Soldiers, Roman, 15; behaviour in revolutionary wars , 159, 180, 217, 255; divorced from politics, 352