lidation of the revolutionary process. Emphasis is laid, however, not upon the personality and acts of Augustus, but upon hi

is laid, however, not upon the personality and acts of Augustus, but upon his adherents and partisans. The composition of t

mporary, the robust Agrippa; no schemer could have counted in advance upon the deaths of his nephew Marcellus, of Drusus his

sation, or ‘novus status’, was the work of fraud and bloodshed, based upon the seizure of power and redistribution of proper

clemency, when he seized power by force, and when he based authority upon law and consent. The Dictatorship of Caesar, revi

n ruins the living interest of history and precludes a fair judgement upon the agents. They did not know the future. Heave

denied. Cicero was a humane and cultivated man, an enduring influence upon the course of all European civilization: he peris

=>005 1 As Pollio has perished, Tacitus and Sallust can be drawn upon for compensation. For example, the fragments of t

ed by the hidden discords of human nature. Moreover, undue insistence upon the character and exploits of a single person inv

ilitary tyrants. In these last and fatal convulsions, disaster came upon disaster, ever more rapid. Three of the monarchic

inent of the consulars. 2 The consulate did not merely confer power upon its holder and dignity for life: it ennobled a fa

against aggression was often invoked by a politician when he embarked upon a course of unconstitutional action. The dynast

oils of the provinces, bought the farms of small peasants, encroached upon public land, seized through mortgages the ancestr

he great piscinarii, Hortensius and the two Luculli, pondered at ease upon the quiet doctrines of Epicurus and confirmed fro

en he sought to break the match. When pronouncing the funeral oration upon Marius’ widow, replacing the trophies of Marius o

atem vindicavit. ’ PageBook=>029 subversive designs, he turned upon his ally and saved the government. Then, coming b

ey soon repaid Pompeius. Through a tribune’s law the People conferred upon their champion a vast command against the Pirates

year the domination of Pompeius Magnus was openly revealed. It rested upon his own auctoritas, the wealth and influence of C

nough, had he not been emboldened to announce in the Senate an attack upon the legislation of Caesar’s consulate. Pompeius d

cipes strove for prestige and power, but not to erect a despotic rule upon the ruins of the constitution, or to carry out a

ommonly called the ‘Rechtsfrage’, and interminably discussed, depends upon a ‘Machtfrage’. 2 BC 1, 9, 2: ‘sibi semper prim

onarchie3, 299 ff. PageBook=>050 enemies of Caesar had counted upon capitulation or a short and easy war. They had

ca and in Spain. ‘They would have it thus,’ said Caesar as he gazed upon the Roman dead at Pharsalus, half in patriot grie

cy. They were members of his own class: he had not wished to make war upon them or to exterminate the Roman aristocracy. But

the idealism of certain of his partisans who had hoped for an assault upon the moneyed classes, a drastic reduction of debts

Commonwealth some years earlier, he may have expected to be consulted upon these weighty matters. But Cicero’s hopes of res

ome and unimagined there monarchic rule, despotic and absolute, based upon worship of the ruler, after the pattern of the mo

ate and baffled itself in the end. 4 Of the melancholy that descended upon Caesar there stands the best of testimony ’my lif

below, p. 128. PageBook=>063 power and noted for their attacks upon Caesar, when Caesar was an ally and agent of the

will hardly be necessary to quote the evidence for Catullus’ attacks upon Caesar, Vatinius, Mamurra and Labienus the last m

erstood each other. The patrician might recall past favours conferred upon the Roman plebs:3 he could also appeal to the dut

ar and he would keep faith. ’1 As he also observed, ‘If he had called upon the services of thugs and brigands in defence of

tius, the Caesarian business man, but Matius’ son composed a treatise upon horticulture and domesticated a new species of ap

te his enemies. Through these agents repeated assaults were delivered upon the wavering and despondent loyalties of Cicero.

th and the best cavalry in the world. Caesar bestowed the franchise upon the chieftains, his allies or his former adversar

aesar both made himself known there and in absence conferred benefits upon his old province, as he reminded the ungrateful m

e Senate: but the formidable company of the Sullan centurions shrinks upon scrutiny to a single example. 1 Caesar’s adhere

h them to Rome the cults and legends of their families, imposing them upon the religion of the Roman State and the history o

ulent devices. The Marcii were powerful enough to obtrude an ancestor upon the list of the kings, Ancus Marcius; and that du

s against Rome, in the name of Italy. Italia they stamped as a legend upon their coins, and Italia was the new state which t

tive interests. No doubt: the propertied classes looked with distrust upon the reform programmes of Roman tribunes and hated

osed; 2 but Cicero was not present. The Liberators remained ensconced upon the Capitol. Their coup had been countered by the

lissima. ’ PageBook=>099 the benefactions bestowed by his will upon the people of Rome, the crowd broke loose and bur

aetors, should have usurped authority and summoned the Senate to meet upon the Capitol, it was afterwards urged. 3 But that

l was premature. Nor could the faction of Brutus and Cassius reckon upon the citizen-body of the capital. To the cold logi

ly imposed by the Dictatorship might even be prolonged. It all turned upon the Caesarian consul. Marcus Antonius was one o

nce, Roman aristocratic standards, old and new, with their insistence upon civic virtue or personal liberty, accorded a wide

ng his position unduly. In these April days fortune seemed to smile upon the Roman State and upon Antonius. It had been fe

In these April days fortune seemed to smile upon the Roman State and upon Antonius. It had been feared that the assassinati

o Rome not that it mattered much; 2 and he bestowed Roman citizenship upon the inhabitants of Sicily. 3 Bribery and forged d

c mention of the nobilis P. Sulpicius Rufus, while Sallustius reposed upon the satisfaction of his recovered dignity and the

discover with dismay that a new and incalculable factor had impinged upon Roman politics. NotesPage=>111 1 The situa

leader had left this competitor out of account. His primacy depended upon a delicate equilibrium between the support of the

, Caesar’s heir was merely a nuisance, not a factor of much influence upon the policy of Antonius. The consul had already de

and Cicero, who was mercilessly snubbed by Servilia when he embarked upon an all too familiar recital of lost opportunities

destiny and with public exploitation. 2 He caused a star to be placed upon the head of statues of Caesar. Hence a new comp

Book=>119 with a firm manifesto (August 4th), taking their stand upon their principles and their personal honour: they

y and the bribes of Caesar’s heir. With what consummate art he worked upon this material in the month of NotesPage=>119

he July days at Rome that Octavianus, though a patrician, had designs upon this office. 1 Nothing came of it for the moment:

ng and the example of Caesar taught him to run risks gaily, to insist upon his prestige, his honour, the rights due to his n

his name and station. But not to excess: Octavianus took a firm stand upon dignitas without dangerous indulgence in chivalry

with the inscription ‘Parenti optime merito’. 2 His enemies let loose upon him a tribune, Ti. Cannutius by name. The exacerb

d a vigorous speech attacking Antonius, praising Caesar and asserting upon oath his invincible resolve to win the honours an

The consul returned to Rome. On November 28th the Senate met by night upon the Capitol. It was later alleged that a consular

assailed, and the traditional contempt which the Roman noble visited upon the family and extraction of respectable municipa

re destined for glory and for history. When Salvidienus tended flocks upon his native hills as a boy, a tongue of flame shot

6-44 B.C. On his return to Rome late in the summer Servilius embarked upon a tortuous policy, to enhance his power and that

o expected war and when war came, even Cato seemed willing to go back upon his principles and make concessions to Caesar. 1

te the clemency and magnanimity of the Dictator,4 he soon set to work upon a vindication of Cato, which he published, inaugu

nius more susceptible. Cicero was constrained to lavish his treasures upon an unworthy object in April of the year 44 B.C. h

ritten about the ideal statesman. Political failure, driving him back upon himself, had then sought and created consolations

published in 51 B.C. About the same time Cicero had also been at work upon the Laws, which described in detail the instituti

at the consulars: but the advocates of concord and a settlement based upon compromise were neither fools nor traitors. If th

ept at smooth language. Political intrigue in times of peace played upon all the arts of gentle persuasion to convert an o

nd salubrious fashion: seven years later the plea of Lepidus recoiled upon his NotesPage=>159 1 Appian, BC 5, 17, 69:

ost impudent sophistries, delivering a solemn and patriotic panegyric upon treason. 1 He demonstrated that if a private army

he Republic who did not? But Plancus, it is clear, was coolly waiting upon events. He already possessed the reputation of a

hil. 5, 46. PageBook=>168 be invoked to confer senatorial rank upon a private citizen. It had not been done even for

ed by the party of the constitution when it ‘established the Republic upon a firm basis’. While consul, Antonius was clearly

the conduct of their mission by Piso and Philippus. ’2 The conditions upon which Antonius was prepared to treat were these:3

ed by the Roman People to say nothing of condoning the rank conferred upon a private adventurer. As for Brutus and Cassius,

enabled moderate men like Pansa to rebuff Cicero’s proposal to confer upon Cassius the commission of making war against Dola

Pansa himself was wounded, but Hirtius arriving towards evening fell upon the victorious and disordered troops of Antonius

ustus, in self-justification, incriminated the Senate for slights put upon him, exaggerating greatly, cf. F. Blumenthal, Wie

the troops directly. The soldiers refused to tolerate such a slight upon their leader, patron and friend. Octavianus, hi

a certain Juventius Laterensis, a Republican and an honest man, fell upon his sword. Lepidus now penned a dispatch to the S

good will and loyalty, explained how weak his forces were, and blamed upon the young Caesar the escape of Antonius and his u

be removed; and the emphasis that open enemies and false friends laid upon his extreme youth was becoming more and more irks

. If Plutarch is to be believed, Augustus admitted that he had played upon Cicero’s ambition to be consul. 4 Ad M. Brutum

on their side against Caesar’s murderer. The designs of Octavianus upon the consulate were suspected in May, his intrigue

d from his march. And now for a moment a delusive ray of hope shone upon the sinking hulk of the Republic. Two veteran leg

e duly instituted. Octavianus could afford to wait, to take vengeance upon the lesser enemies along with the greater. Rome

he dynast Pompeius in 60 B.C. and during the years following depended upon control, open or secret, of the organs of governm

venerable exclaimed that the ancient monarchy was returning and died upon the spot, of his own will. 2 The scene may have b

w was also proscribed. 7 Such respectable examples conferred sanction upon crime and murder, if any were needed, among the p

A.D. 45). PageBook=>195 property. Freedmen, as usual, battened upon the blood of citizens. 1 The proscriptions may

ay not unfairly be regarded as in purpose and essence a peculiar levy upon capital. As in Sulla’s proscription, nobiles and

virtue or from caution, men refused to purchase estates as they came upon the market. Money soared in value. The Triumvirs

the market. Money soared in value. The Triumvirs then imposed a levy upon the possessions of opulent females, arousing indi

money and land. There was no other source for the Caesarians to draw upon , for the provinces of the West were exhausted, th

f Rome but, as sole and sufficient proof, the presence of their names upon the Fasti. 7 The Antonians Decidius, Ventidius

t the Antonians were not the worst. Advancement unheard of now smiled upon the avid, the brutal and the unscrupulous: even y

class and country, and bring himself to inflict the penalty of death upon the brother of Antonius. When Brutus heard of the

defect of his eyesight1 and believing that all was lost, Cassius fell upon his sword. Such was the first Battle of Philippi

of Brutus. 3 They had once been friends. As Antonius gazed in sorrow upon the Roman dead, the tragedy of his own life may h

1 They played a double game. Before the veterans they laid the blame upon Octavianus, insisting that a final decision be re

knew the character of her husband: he neither would nor could go back upon his pledges of alliance to Octavianus. She must f

his soldiers inscribed the name of Marcus Antonius as their imperator upon their sling-bullets; 1 those of the besiegers bor

n of the proscriptions. 4 As the siege continued and hunger pressed upon the defenders, Ventidius and Pollio resolved to a

une who had presented Caesar’s heir before the people when he marched upon Rome for the first time. 1 Death was also the pen

one man, an astute person who in Rome had secured for himself a seat upon the jury that condemned to death the assassins of

nd Antonius, if adequately informed, may still have preferred to wait upon events. 5 At last he moved. The Parthian menace

ed to wait upon events. 5 At last he moved. The Parthian menace was upon him, but the Parthians could wait. Antonius gathe

fleet of Ahenobarbus, superior in strength, was descried bearing down upon them. Antonius drove on: Plancus was afraid. Ahen

rdinia M. Lurius the partisan of Octavianus, and he now made descents upon the coasts of southern Italy. A complete revolu

s announced the end of the ninth age (Servius on Ecl. 9, 47) and died upon the spot: the incident is there brought into conn

t the end of 40 B.C. the domination of the Caesarian faction, founded upon the common interests of leaders and soldiers and

soon followed as governor of the province of Asia; 3 and immediately upon the conclusion of the pact Antonius sent his best

Rome had been restored. It remained to settle the affairs of the East upon an enduring basis and make war, for revenge, for

trouble. Octavianus soon found it advisable or necessary to make war upon Sex. Pompeius. He invited Antonius to come to Ita

r received them. Antonius departed. Before long the conviction grew upon him that he had been thwarted and deceived. He ma

Whether from choice or from necessity, he came to rely more and more upon the services of his Greek freedmen; in the subseq

ld easily be represented as a pirate. 5 Peace was not kept for long upon the Italian seas. Before the year was out mutual

r peace, and once again the plea of averting Roman bloodshed recoiled upon Lepidus. His dignitas forfeit, Lepidus begged pub

ies. 6 Appian indicates that the soldiers had carefully been worked upon (BC 5, 124, 513), and Dio (49, 12, 1) is cynical

received honourable wounds. Antonius must not be allowed to presume upon his Caesarian qualities or retain the monopoly of

nd ample development of theme would scarcely have retained their hold upon a generation that had lost leisure and illusions

knew it too well; and the immediate and palpable present bore heavily upon the historian, imperatively recalling the men and

but of a wider and even more menacing perspective. They might reflect upon the death of Alexander the Macedonian, the long c

ament. Nor would the times now permit political satire or free attack upon the existing order in state and society. Republic

of sentiment and a realistic conception of human life. He insisted upon modernity, both in style and in subject, already

ent himself. Antonius now acknowledged paternity. The mother bestowed upon the children the high-sounding names of Alexander

e, were not knit together by any principle of uniformity but depended upon the ties of personal allegiance. Pompeius Magnu

ean more heavily on the support of eastern allies. Antonius set out upon his great campaign, leaving Syria in the spring o

te when, after a vain siege, he was forced to retreat. The winter was upon him. Worn by privations and harried on their slow

e or delay to Syria, for Armenia was unsafe. He postponed the revenge upon Artavasdes. It was a defeat, but not a rout or

inent, with aggression coming from the West, from Octavianus, but not upon an innocent and unsuspecting ally. Both sides wer

ation of the kingdom of Egypt, passed without repercussion in Rome or upon Roman sentiment. Nor did any outcry of indignant

not all of them in the power or gift of Antonius, were also bestowed upon the three children whom Cleopatra had borne him.

ecord; even if there were, it would be necessary further to speculate upon the policy and intentions of Antonius, the domina

e, however, the burden of administration would impose a severe strain upon the Roman People. If the Roman oligarchy was to s

; 4 they were a pretext in the strife for power, the magnificent lie upon which was built the supremacy of Caesar’s heir an

s in the East. 1 Antonius replied with a manifesto. He took his stand upon legality and upon the plighted word of covenants,

ntonius replied with a manifesto. He took his stand upon legality and upon the plighted word of covenants, which was a mista

c with moral and emotional appeal, he turned the weight of his attack upon Antonius’ alliance with the Queen of Egypt. Then

nature of the tie that bound them. 3 Antonius had presumed too much upon the loyalty of a party that was united not by pri

ould, into a safe and inglorious neutrality. Yet Antonius could count upon tried military men like Sosius and Canidius. No

nius reposed in the custody of the Vestal Virgins. Neither the attack upon the policy of Antonius in the East, nor the indig

because Cleopatra was passing by in her litter, that he had bestowed upon his paramour the whole library of Pergamum, no le

stated (and has since been believed), was ‘so may I deliver my edicts upon the Capitol’. 5 No Roman however degenerate could

other, criminal war between citizens was being forced by mad ambition upon the Roman People. In this atmosphere of terror an

revolution, by famine and by fear, broke out and prevailed, imposing upon the strife for power an ideal, august and patriot

izing power at the expense of absent enemies and establishing a claim upon their estates. Many regions were under the contro

he violent attempt of a degenerate Roman to install a barbarian queen upon the Capitol with her eunuchs, her mosquito-nets a

5 ff. It is clear, however, that provincial levies were heavily drawn upon . Brutus, for example, raised two legions of Maced

ssential part of his propaganda to demonstrate that Antonius bestowed upon unworthy and criminal aliens the dominions of the

o maintain and a menace to internal peace. He appears to have decided upon a permanent establishment of about twenty-six leg

won, the menace to Italy’s life and soul averted. But salvation hung upon a single thread. Well might men adjure the gods o

red to other lands. The propaganda of Octavianus had skilfully worked upon such apprehensions. Once aroused they would be di

rely: the scope and force of this act of indemnity will have depended upon the will and convenience of the government. How

curus’. 4 Naked despotism is vulnerable. The imperator could depend upon the plebs and the army. But he could not rule wit

me had even been elevated into the patriciate. Octavianus could count upon certain of his NotesPage=>307 1 Res Gestae

nent personages might have brought secret and urgent pressure to bear upon him. Some informal exchange of opinion there ma

e. Yet it would be inexpedient to remove them all. Octavianus decided upon a half-measure. Under the rule of the Triumvira

rity familiar to them as proconsular and absolute, whether it resided upon the dictatorial powers of the Triumvirate, pure u

te again met, eager and impatient to render thanks, to confer honours upon the saviour of the State. They voted that a wreat

every purpose; and the blame of his proscription was profitably laid upon Antonius, dead and disgraced. Augustus bore testi

red rights of property; it was Roman and Republican, for power rested upon the laws, with every class in the Commonwealth ke

loyal to a family and a cause—but that was another matter. Insistence upon the legal basis of Augustus’ powers, on precedent

Philippus and Balbus. To retain power, however, he must base his rule upon general consent, the support of men of property a

oes not exhaust the count. His rule was personal—and based ultimately upon a personal oath of allegiance rendered by Rome, I

the military leader in the res publica which he sought to ‘establish upon a lasting basis’ is not a matter of paramount imp

s carefully safeguarded. It is an entertaining pursuit to speculate upon the subtleties of legal theory, or to trace from

r as well as in military glory. It would be expedient to rely instead upon the interested loyalty of partisans of lower stan

columns of invasion; and as all glory and all history now concentrate upon a single person, only the detachment commanded by

ent and ruthless, imposed by massacre and enslavement the Roman peace upon a desolated land. Such was the end of a ten years

hoping and fearing in secret. On the first day of January he entered upon his eleventh consulate with Murena, a prominent p

ns from the Princeps. The First Citizen appeared in court. His denial upon oath secured condemnation of the offender. 4 Va

as altered. More important than that, official standing was conferred upon the ablest man among his adherents, the principal

r show. In the course of the year, proconsular imperium was conferred upon Agrippa for five years. The exact nature and comp

eover the time might seem to be near for renewing diplomatic pressure upon the King of the Parthians to regain the standards

ful but grave and melancholy, with all the burden of duty and destiny upon him. Augustus’ character remains elusive, despi

or fire. 3 The Viceroy of Egypt could look down from high eminence upon a mere proconsul of Crete or Cyprus; and the Pref

lemn rebuke of the princess his paramour for the disgrace she brought upon her family, her ancestors and all posterity by su

e first century of the Principate until they set a provincial emperor upon the throne and found a dynasty of Spanish and Nar

e new system, with no little success. But there must be no going back upon his earlier supporters the plebs, the veterans an

His rule, now more firmly consolidated, went on steadily encroaching upon the departments of Senate and People, law and mag

life. Not until 5 B.C. do suffect consuls become frequent and regular upon the Fasti. The date is not accidental: the flagra

t and pointless to scrutinize the merits that conferred the consulate upon C. Valgius Rufus, an erudite person who wrote poe

and public complaint when inferior Valerii sought to graft themselves upon his family tree. 3 Some frauds could perhaps evad

, Julia. No less resplendent in its way was the fortune that attended upon other partisans of Augustus. Unfortunately the pa

poils of the provinces. Augustus was ready enough to bestow emolument upon impoverished nobles or meritorious novi homines,

and endowment in money on a princely scale. Egypt was his, the prize upon which politicians and financiers had cast greedy

iety, it is evident that sacerdotal preferment will be conferred, not upon the pious and learned, but for social distinction

re at least preserved from the dreary calamities that so often attend upon the theoretical study of the military art or on a

us devised posts to be held by Roman knights. For the rest, he called upon senators; and the presidents of the various board

They may have suspected, and with reason, that he intended to devolve upon them certain unpopular functions like that renewe

modified and its powers were so far enhanced as to encroach seriously upon the functions of the full Senate. 2 But this was

ition of the Princeps was delicate and perilous, being held to repose upon general consent and modest executive powers. It w

. Plancus proposed that the Senate should confer the name of Augustus upon Caesar’s heir. It will be inferred that the motio

ication of the Princeps’ statute and the conferment of special powers upon his deputy proceeded without any unfortunate inci

land of Rhodes, where he remained in exile, nourishing his resentment upon a diet of science and letters. His enemies called

not outrageous. To bestow the supreme magistracy of the Roman People upon an untried youth in the twentieth year of his age

would control the government. It would be idle indeed to speculate upon the composition of a body that never came into ex

led the bitter frustration of his dearest hopes. 1 They were not lost upon Tiberius or upon the principes, his rivals. In th

ustration of his dearest hopes. 1 They were not lost upon Tiberius or upon the principes, his rivals. In this emergency Augu

death occurred in the midst of the frontier troubles, in which, close upon the gravest foreign war since Hannibal (for so th

, it was necessary that the Principate should be conferred by consent upon the first citizen for services rendered and expec

there were awkward moments in the public conferment of the Principate upon the heir whom he had designated. Tiberius himself

by Augustus, the least honest and the least Republican of men, preyed upon the conscience of Tiberius and revealed itself in

f Actium. Whatever the truth of that contention, he could not go back upon it, even if he had wished. The mandate was not ex

Poppaea of the year A.D. 9.1 Regeneration was now vigorously at work upon the Roman People. The New Age could confidently b

own property in marriage. The emancipation of women had its reaction upon the men, who, instead of a partner from their own

al and social dignity of a senatorial family imposed a rigorous limit upon its size. Augustus therefore devised rewards for

4 Augustus stepped in to save the race, imposing severe restriction upon the freedom of individual owners in liberating th

vident enough. More than that, the whole conception of the Roman past upon which he sought to erect the moral and spiritual

then the Greek: the inevitable romanticism of a prosperous age, based upon the convenient dogma that it retained liberty whi

honourable behaviour in a society where profit and promotion depended upon the patronage of the government. To say nothing o

poems assailed the Three-headed Monster, concentrating, as was just, upon Pompeius Magnus; and the plebs of Rome was encour

f a constitution that meant nothing to them, and leaping with avidity upon any dramatic phrase that fitted the domination of

s lyric vein now drying up, exerted himself to establish the movement upon a firm basis of theory and to claim the rank of c

ies of a healthy community. Epicureanism, indeed, was heavily frowned upon , being a morally unedifying creed and likely to i

an policy of social regeneration and the most illuminating commentary upon it. After eloquent discourse upon high themes Hor

nd the most illuminating commentary upon it. After eloquent discourse upon high themes Horace recovers himself at the end:

nor striking. That was not intended. The perpetual guidance lavished upon the hero is likewise repugnant to romantic notion

mittant. 6 In the same years the historian Livy was already at work upon the majestic and comprehensive theme of his choic

ly have been sent farther. Poetry and history were designed to work upon the upper and middle classes of a regenerated soc

ng that the rich vocabulary of politics was not more frequently drawn upon . Tota Italia would not have been out of place.

atron. 1 Other materials were available. The loyal citizen might gaze upon Augustus in the shape of the young revolutionary

from Republic to Empire might be described as the provinces’ revenge upon Rome. Army and provinces stood firm for the estab

a privileged position. In the Senate he once launched a savage attack upon the patriotic gymnastics in which one of his gran

his friends: a trial might be the occasion either of a direct attack upon their persons or for occasional and apparently sp

of ‘tantae molis erat’. It is to be regretted that Pollio’s comments upon this interesting document have not been preserved

th the acerbity of Pollio must have delivered a more crushing verdict upon a historian from Patavium than the obvious and tr

e to tell the truth about the living, but hate might have its revenge upon the dead. Hence the contrasted but complementary

atched by his depreciation of the generals of Augustus who encroached upon Tiberius’ monopoly of military glory, whether per

he calls it, ‘iustus sine mendacio candor’. 6 It is lavishly bestowed upon social distinction or political success. Velleius

der the Empire was constrained to veiled criticism or delayed revenge upon the enemies of the government. Satire valiantly a

history, imposing their names, as families had done in happier days, upon a period or a government. In the background lurk

no means exempt from the infertility or the ill fortune that attended upon the progeny of consulars. Their record displays t

was no field left them now for action or even for display. Insistence upon dignitas or magnitudo animi was a dangerous anach

rimacy of the nobiles was a fraud as well as an anachronism it rested upon support and subsidy by a military leader, the ene

at did not matter. Personal rights and private status need not depend upon the form of government. And even though hereditar

not arbitrary. It derived from consent and delegation; it was founded upon the laws. This was something different from the m

hile the harm done by a bad emperor was not boundless: it fell mostly upon his immediate entourage. 5 The Roman had once b

temporary could doubt. But his rule was justified by merit, founded upon consent and tempered by duty. Augustus stood like

intended to outshine them all. At the very moment when he was engaged upon the ostensible restoration of the Republic, he co

18; the Georgics, 254; the Aeneid, 304 f., 317 f., 462 ff.; his views upon Octavianus after Actium, 304 f.; on Troy, 305; Po

eyond the second generation. IV. THE AEMILII LEPIDI This is based upon Groag’s table (PIR2, A, p. 57), omitting M’. Aemi

IR2, C, facing p. 328. VII. THE CONNEXIONS OF VARUS This is based upon the stemma worked out by E. Groag, P-W XVII, 870,