local aristocracies, the holders of property, power and office in the towns of Italy, the proportion was clearly much higher

ry estates, content with the petty dignity of municipal office in the towns of Italy. Others, however, grasped at the spoils

s the dynast won to his allegiance and personal following (clientela) towns and whole regions, provinces and nations, kings a

nfidently been expected that the solid and respectable classes in the towns of Italy would rally in defence of the authority

he proconsuls before him. In the West, in Africa and throughout Asia, towns , provinces and kings were bound to the imperator

and more energetic rival. Caesar the proconsul won to his person the towns of Gallia Cisalpina and the tribal princes of Gau

oconsul:4 among his officers were knights from the aristocracy of the towns . 5 Benefits anticipated were more potent than ben

t, colonial Romans or other wealthy and talented individuals from the towns of Spain and southern Gaul will have been more ac

ar recruited for his new Senate the propertied classes of the Italian towns , men of station and substance, whether their gain

families to reach the consulate are plainly immigrant. Not merely the towns of Latium even Etruria and Campania, if not Benev

liance with the knights and personal ties with the leading men in the towns of Italy he acquired power and advanced partisans

ics and distrust of the government, attested and intelligible even in towns and families that had long since been incorporate

of the Italian insurgents. Marius had many adherents in the Etruscan towns ; and all the Samnites marched on Rome, not from l

ns of Italy, as their names often testify. 7 All classes came in. The towns of Italy welcomed the resurgence of the Marian fa

n, a prosperous region, could show Marian and Caesarian connexions in towns like Puteoli, Cales and Nuceria. The Granii of Pu

d from Pompeius, others not to be closely defined: an origin from the towns of Picenum can be surmised for certain of Caesar’

ators departed from Rome early in April, and took refuge in the small towns in the neighbourhood of the capital. Long befor

ould have been the soldiers of the legions and the inhabitants of the towns of Italy. With the veterans, the Liberators were

s and Cassius during the months of April and May lurked in the little towns of Latium in the vicinity of Rome, they gathered

simi viri’. 4 Whether these idealistic or snobbish young men from the towns possessed the will and the resources for action,

knights, to financiers and to individuals commanding influence in the towns of Italy. Once a compact and devoted following wa

edmen, ambitious sons of ruined families from the local gentry of the towns of Italy. The hazards were palpable, and so were

ed most dubious. The veterans arose at the call of Caesar’s heir, the towns of Campania were enthusiastic. Among the plebs he

attempts were therefore made to engineer a spontaneous consensus. The towns passed decrees. The men of Firmum took the lead i

ate enemies. Many a long-standing contest for wealth and power in the towns of Italy was now decided. The Coponii were an anc

mies, but their victims as well, men of substance and repute from the towns of Italy. Change and casualties are most clearl

ity, Divus Julius; and another law made provision for the cult in the towns of Italy. 2 The young Caesar could now designate

et repute among the Roman aristocracy, or persons of influence in the towns of Italy: in both he advertised and extended his

however, sons of wealthy families from the local aristocracies in the towns of the North Verona, Brixia, Cremona. 3 NotesPa

osed the session. Octavianus meanwhile mustered supporters from the towns of Italy Caesarian veterans, personal adherents a

ties of Italy; 5 his allies took an oath of personal loyalty, and the towns of Italy offered public vows for his safety. 6

ea and profession. The local gentry, who controlled the policy of the towns , could create opinion, produce votes of the local

red the movement. When Pompeius fell ill at Naples in 50 B.C. Italian towns offered up prayers for his safety and passed decr

Antonius. 1 Many senators had fled to Antonius. Rival factions in the towns could now emerge, seizing power at the expense of

the provinces. The land was supplied by confiscation from Antonian towns and partisans in Italy, or purchased from the war

of respect for dignity: local magnates of the Antonian faction in the towns of Italy had local enemies. A number of victims

nine cohorts of the Praetorian Guard, established in Rome and in the towns of Italy. When addressing the troops, Augustus

it is by no means unlikely that sons of equestrian families from the towns of Italy entered the legions for adventure, for e

evenues of his provinces. They were drawn from the aristocracy of the towns , provincial as well as Italian. Thus P. Vitelli

ng decayed, like Lanuvium, provide senators for Rome there are remote towns of no note before or barely named, like Aletrium

magnates, bound by ties of blood and marriage to their peers in other towns , and desperately proud of birth. 1 Of some the to

six men appear to have begun their senatorial career, coming from the towns of Verona, Patavium, Brixia, Pola and Concordia.

as their capital, to the Princeps as their patron and defender. The towns of Italy contributed soldiers, officers and senat

war: they were not to be neglected in peace. Augustus encouraged the towns to commend candidates for military posts in the e

rcement of the citizen body. Above all, the propertied classes in the towns of the Empire, east and west, stood firm by their

ectured that the patriotic clubs (collegia iuventutis) of the Italian towns had a definite role to play. Knights themselves

Narbonensis by the Domitia recalled the exploits of noble houses; and towns and trophies commemorated the glory and the vanit

3 On this, cf. H. M. Last, CAH x, 461 ff. PageBook=>446 In the towns of Italy there was a counterpart the collegia iuv

awarded commissions in the militia equestris to men approved by their towns (perhaps ex-magistrates). 2 The municipia, or rat

pitales and the genius of Augustus at Rome, and by priesthoods in the towns . 6 PageNotes. 446 1 L. R. Taylor, JRS XIV (19

er the world: many preferred to stay in the provinces or drift to the towns rather than return to a hard living in some valle

iles. Being recruited in so large a measure from Roman knights of the towns of Italy, it found itself rewarded with power in

consciousness of superiority, with pride and with resentment, in the towns of Italy. The Roman noble sneered at the municipa

tion or perished through ambition and intrigue. Novi homines from the towns of Italy, and especially from the provinces, took

dancing-girls or a millionaire like Balbus. But there were many other towns in Spain and Gallia Narbonensis that soon might s

ing up as a model the character and habits of the middle class in the towns of Italy. Aristocratic libertas and fides were

nomenclature. The frequency of legionary recruits giving Transpadane towns as their domicile is easily explained numerous tr

Antonius’ action on the last occasion there flocked to Rome from the towns of Italy such a concourse as had never before bee

stri vicorum had their altars; likewise throughout Italy and in Roman towns abroad the officiants of the new civic cult, the

PageBook=>473 From Rome sentiment radiated forth to the Roman towns or rather, the towns in sedulous loyalty imitated

From Rome sentiment radiated forth to the Roman towns or rather, the towns in sedulous loyalty imitated for the expression o

amous shield recording the cardinal virtues of Augustus. 1 Many loyal towns possessed their own copies of the Fasti consulare

their worship of Augustus as a god. The West was different. The Roman towns had altars but not temples, as at Tarraco and at

ntegral parts of the Roman People. Moreover, the Roman citizen of the towns with his tradition of law and government could re

ire and recapitulate the sources of his personal power in relation to towns , provinces and kings. The sum of power and presti

ial discontent or the propagation of unsound opinions. Certain of the towns of Italy and the West took pride in their Republi

r the nobiles, no more triumphs after war, no more roads, temples and towns named in their honour and commemorating the glory

. Catilinarians, punishment of, 25 f.; on Caesar’s side, 66; in the towns of Italy, 89. Catullus, see Valerius. Catulus,