e political success or to idealize the men who win wealth and honours through civil war. The history of this age is highly co

y computed, from the winning of sole power by the last of the dynasts through the War of Actium, from the ostensible restoratio

he individuals and classes that have gained wealth, honours and power through revolution emerge as champions of ordered governm

cision, he chose Caesar, his personal friend; and with Caesar he went through the wars from the passage of the Rubicon to the l

h to be regretted that he did not carry his History of the Civil Wars through the period of the Triumvirate to the War of Actiu

cracy. Yet the old framework and categories subsist: a monarchy rules through an oligarchy. Subject and treatment indicated,

These men ruled, as did the Senate, not in virtue of written law, but through auctoritas; and the name of principes civitatis c

ught the farms of small peasants, encroached upon public land, seized through mortgages the ancestral property of senators, and

to secure fair treatment for provincials or reform in the Roman State through the re-establishment of the peasant farmer. Among

were the most important. Through alliance with groups of financiers, through patronage exercised in the law-courts and ties of

eminence both when a consul and when a consular, or senior statesman, through lack of family- connexions and clientela. Withi

PageBook=>017 Sulla prevailed and settled order at Rome again through violence and bloodshed. Sulla decimated the knigh

ly reduced in political power in the previous generation, not so much through Marius as from internal disasters and the rise of

in eastern warfare under Sulla and highly trusted by him, led armies through Asia and shattered the power of Mithridates. Comb

Lucullus, proconsul of Macedonia, carried the arms of Rome in victory through Thrace to the shore of Pontus and the mouth of th

arbus, the cousin of Catulus, a young man early prominent in politics through the great estates in Italy and the clientela amon

us). PageBook=>025 to few at Rome to achieve distinction, save through the questionable and hazardous means of the tribu

ecay, largely by help from C. Marius, strained every nerve and effort through long years of political intrigue to maintain the

cked fear or scruple. Contending against two of the principes, he won through bribery and popular favour the paramount office i

y (Livy, Per. 75). 4 A great extension of the corn-dole was carried through by Cato in 62 B.C. (Plutarch, Cato minor 26). 5

opened in fraud and violence. It was prosecuted, in war and in peace, through illegality and treachery. He held a command in Af

lebeian aristocracy: its first consul (in 141 B.C.) had been promoted through patronage of the Scipiones. 4 Subsequent alliance

as in high spirits and fatal confidence. At variance with the Metelli through his clash with Nepos, he had broken with the Clau

umber of tribunes; further, less obtrusive and barely to be perceived through the tumultuous clamour of political life at Rome

heir turn received important military provinces, Syria and Macedonia, through special laws. Gabinius and Piso were the most c

95; S1G3 750). 3 Crassus was in alliance with the Metelli not only through his elder son (ILS 881). The younger, P. Crassus,

s and reinforced the party of Caesar. Caesar had risen to great power through Pompeius, helped by the lieutenants of Pompeius i

ambition of a Roman noble: but it was not his ambition to seize power through civil strife and hold it, supreme and alone. His

Caesar as ‘veterem et clementem dominum. ’ 3 Enhanced in importance through Cato’s martyr-death and posthumous fame, his stud

man than many have fancied; and no Roman conceived of government save through an oligarchy. But Caesar was being forced into an

restige, asserted that Pompeius was disloyal. Caesar had made enemies through Pompeius and now Pompeius had joined them. 1 A ju

survivors, nonentities, neutrals or renegades. A few names stand out, through merit or accident, from a dreary background. Neut

rcius Philippus, the prudent son of a father who had passed unscathed through the faction-wars of Marius and Sulla. 3 A consula

as that he never let down his friends. Where Pompeius lost supporters through inertia, vanity or perfidy, Caesar gained them an

On these men, C. Marcellus (cos. 50) and Philippus (cos. 56), related through marriage to Caesar’s grand-nephew, see below, p.

4 Sulla and Caesar, both members of patrician houses that had passed through a long period of obscurity, strove to revive and

h he received the franchise for service to Rome in the Sertorian War, through the agency of Pompeius. 2 Caesar, quaestor in His

es. In earlier days the Roman noble augmented his power and influence through attaching the aristocracy of Italy to his friends

nate by standing for quaestorship or tribunate or by direct adlection through the special powers of the Dictator. Hence a reinf

humble in origin. The centurionate was worth having: it could be got through patronage as well as service. 3 NotesPage=>0

he patricians of Rome, they asserted descent from kings and gods, and through all the frauds of pedigree and legend could at th

ivation of that municipal family from Faunus and the goddess Vitellia through an ancient and extinct patrician house of the ear

ate. Marius nursed resentment against the nobiles and sought to break through their monopoly of patronage. Through alliance wit

, but were autonomous allies. Italy had now become politically united through the extension of the Roman franchise, but the spi

Caesar’s invasion, the allies of Rome from Asculum in the Picene land through the Marsi and Paeligni down to Samnium and Lucani

traditional enemies of Italy. Caesar in his invasion pressed swiftly through Picenum towards Corfinium, gathering in the stron

Cicero made a speech, proposing an amnesty. In this simple fashion, through a coalition of Caesarians and Republicans, Rome r

adel. The facts and elements of power were larger than that. To carry through a Roman revolution in orderly form, in the first

confusion and inaccuracy: it has been brought into satisfactory order through the researches of O. E. Schmidt (Jahrbücher für c

reover, Antonius could induce him to depart to his province. Lepidus, through his family connexion with Brutus, might prove a b

s (cos. 50 B.C.); the son, in any event assured of a brilliant career through these influential connexions, was taken up by Cae

or the ambitious Octavianus, the gradual advancement of a Roman noble through the consecrated order of magistracies to the cons

ining. Legitimate primacy, it is true, could only be attained at Rome through many extra-constitutional resources, bribery, int

e memory of the Dictator, to their apprehensions or envy of Antonius: through them he might hope to influence neutral or Republ

id not return to Rome and the rival Caesarian leaders were reconciled through the insistence of the soldiery. To Antonius, no

othing was known. But late in October disquieting news came to Rome through private sources. It was reported that the legions

his ally Lepidus (who had brought Sex. Pompeius to terms) and carried through the allotment of praetorian provinces for the fol

cause for which better men had died, will none the less have striven through intrigue to maintain the newly retrieved eminence

us were nephews of the Dictator: they received a share of his fortune through the will, which they are said to have resigned to

ators emerge on his side. When four years have elapsed and Octavianus through all hazards, through all vicissitudes of craft an

ide. When four years have elapsed and Octavianus through all hazards, through all vicissitudes of craft and violence, extorts r

they are not an impressive company. 1 Senators who had come safely through civil war or who owed rank and fortune to one rev

young Pompeius, he was reluctant to break with Antonius, for he hoped through Antonius to get an early consulate for his own so

venturer required the open backing of senior statesmen in the Senate: through their auctoritas he might acquire recognition and

nd senseless luxury. 2 Being the father-in-law of Caesar, and elected through the agency of Pompeius and Caesar to the consulat

alty, despite harsh rebuffs and evidences of cold perfidy, for which, through easy self-deception, he chose to blame Caesar, th

ailure to comprehend his strategy. Then Caesar wooed him assiduously, through the familiar offices of Balbus and Oppius and by

ppus and of Marcellus were likewise of no weight. 4 Cicero’s path lay through Aquinum, but apparently he missed Hirtius and Bal

ation, or even on a short? Of the wisdom of raising up Caesar’s heir, through violence and illegal arms against Antonius, there

erits. Again, the law-courts were an avenue for political advancement through prosecution, a battle-ground for private enmities

no constitution at all. This meant that a revolution could be carried through without any violation of legal and constitutional

he constitution was held to be aristocratic. In fact, oligarchy ruled through consent and prescription. There were two principl

the Senate could at once legalize treason, condoning the private act through publica auctoritas; 3 the bribery of the troops o

rhaps be defended: he was at least a magistrate and held his province through legal provisions, namely the acta of Caesar the D

the principes’; such was the constant and bitter complaint of Cicero through the months when he clamoured for war. 4 ‘The cons

is own interests and an assiduous care for his own safety carried him through well-timed treacheries to a peaceful old age. Pla

esarian A. Allienus was conducting four legions northwards from Egypt through Palestine, to join Dolabella. They too went to sw

his advantage. Early in March came the news that Dolabella, passing through Asia on his way to Syria and opposed by the proco

iven to the enterprises of Brutus and Cassius. A thrill of horror ran through the Senate. The Republicans exploited their advan

certain that the troops would have obeyed. 1 And so Ventidius slipped through . Before long Octavianus received news from Rome

s and betrayed by his troops, fled northwards, hoping to make his way through the Alpine lands by a wide circuit to Macedonia.

was forging a new and more enduring compact of interest and sentiment through which the revived Caesarian party was to establis

ing the armies of the East, invading Italy and restoring the Republic through violence. He did not believe in violence. At Athe

s far out of reach. Before the end of May he began to march eastwards through Macedonia to regulate the affairs of Thrace, reco

the youth of Octavianus, exposed to an iron schooling and constrained through form of law and not in the heat of battle to shed

they settled accounts with the Liberators. Cicero could have escaped through indecision he lingered until too late. His murder

had many enemies among the nobiles, but certain of the more eminent, through family connexions and social influence, had been

stered his adherents and tenants, armed the slaves and fought his way through Italy to the sea coasts. 1 Arruntius did the sa

existing order and prevented a reconstitution of the old Roman People through a more equitable division of landed property in I

ite and fortify their front. Then Antonius arrived. Working his way through the marsh to the south around the flank of Cassiu

, NH 7, 148). PageBook=>205 Caesarians, led by Antonius, broke through the front of Cassius and pillaged his camp. Cassi

s of Brutus on the right wing, deceived perhaps, as one account runs, through a defect of his eyesight1 and believing that all

de earlier in the year. For a time he refused to let Salvidienus pass through the Cisalpina on NotesPage=>209 1 Appian,

his brother and his wife. Salvidienus made his way back from Spain through the Cisalpina; Pollio and Ventidius followed, slo

Ventidius, who, undecided and at variance, refused battle and retired through the Apennines. 6 Nor did help come from the south

oyed, the family and faction of the Pompeii had incurred heavy losses through desperate valour at Thapsus and Munda; and prince

clare himself too openly for his step-brother Octavianus: his father, through diplomacy, hoped to get him an early consulate. 6

attacked Octavianus as his ships, coming from Tarentum, were passing through the Straits of Messana to join his other fleet fr

mpronius Atratinus; 2 and Lepidus was conciliated or cajoled, perhaps through Antonius. Octavianus now had the ships. He need

Italian gentry and farmers. Many of the exiles had returned, and some through influence or protection got restitution of proper

their patron, whose cause suddenly revived when young Labienus broke through the Taurus with a Parthian army, encountering no

ill. Regard for Hellenic sentiments would reinforce peace and concord through alliance with the men of property and influence.

reached Ctesiphon, it might never return. Antonius proposed to march through a friendly Armenia, thence invading Media Atropat

a feud with subsequent repercussions. 1 Ahenobarbus was steadfast all through against the blandishments of Cleopatra, refusing

emy. Yet, on the other hand, the united front was not achieved merely through intimidation. Of the manner in which the measure

nd the activities of Drusus precipitated war. But Italy, become Roman through grant of the franchise after the Bellum Italicum,

ck into harbour. 1 Antonius himself with forty ships managed to break through and follow Cleopatra in flight to Egypt. Treacher

y. Canidius the commander sought to induce his soldiers to march away through Macedonia, but in vain. He had to escape to Anton

=>299 order the execution of a woman. After negotiations managed through his friends Gallus and Proculeius, he interviewed

ated Egypt as his own private and dynastic possession and governed it through a viceroy, jealously excluding Roman senators. Th

ople. By what right had it been in his hand? He indicates that it was through general consent that he had acquired supreme powe

IN his sixth and seventh consulates C. Julius Caesar Octavianus went through a painless and superficial transformation. The pr

means to initiate and direct public policy at Rome if not to control through consular imperium the proconsuls abroad. 2 For su

so close as to be damaging. Pompeius Magnus governed Spain in absence through his legates. At the same time he acquired a quasi

t, from the day when the youth of twenty-three raised a private army, through special commands abroad and political compacts at

conceived the idea of the rule of the ‘optimus civis’ from Panaetius through Cicero. PageBook=>322 would pretend that i

gustus was none the less a revolutionary leader who won supreme power through civil war. All that he needed from Cicero he had

nstitution was subservient. This time the new enactments were carried through under the auspices of the supreme magistrates, Au

fferent territories comprised in his provincia and to administer them through his legates, according to the needs of the region

suls. Thus Pompeius Magnus had governed Spain as proconsul in absence through three legates, namely one consular and two praeto

ther Britain or Parthia had no place in the mind of Augustus. Passing through the south of Gaul he arrived in Spain before the

rom recorded history. When M. Agrippa went out, he administered Syria through deputies, residing himself in the island of Lesbo

ve but ever present in counsel and ready for action. Agrippa had been through all the wars of the Revolution and had won most o

bove all, military service. In this way a soldier’s family might rise through equestrian to senatorial rank in two or three gen

is general and personally attached to the head of the government and, through him, to the Roman State. One body of troops stood

cruited in two ways. First, soldiers or soldiers’ sons become knights through military service. T. Flavius Petro, from Reate, a

no commercial upstart, no military careerist rising in social status through service as a centurion. But P. Ovidius Naso was n

usted democracy, were able to thwart the exercise of popular sovranty through a republican constitution which permitted any fre

ified: it was rejuvenated in two ways, by knights’ sons made eligible through grant of the lattis clavus and by youthful quaest

ave up: converted since Actium into an office of ostensible authority through Augustus’ continuous tenure, and regaining its an

eleven nobiles. 1 Conspicuous among the latter are men whose fathers through death or defeat in the Civil Wars had missed the

nds already existed. 4 It was some time before their number increased through division of provinces, through new conquests and

ome time before their number increased through division of provinces, through new conquests and by the creation of Moesia to th

haps evade detection. Certain great houses had sunk for ever. Others, through casualties in the Civil Wars, loss of money and i

he moderate Caesarian P. Servilius, the youth proceeded in four years through a constrained and unconsummated union with a step

tch with Livia, the Princeps long ago had won the Claudian connexion: through the marriages of others he subsequently ensnared

and the Fabii. As the young generation of nobiles grew up and passed through the avenue of political honours to the consulate,

eighty men. 1 Upon his own adherents the Princeps bestowed nobility through the consulate, social distinction by advantageous

n their working. Political competition was sterilized and regulated through a pervasive system of patronage and nepotism. Hen

relaxed his control of the armies, holding the most powerful of them through his own legates. Three military provinces, howeve

ispensation Augustus held the territories and armies of his provincia through his legati pro praetore who, for reasons various

4). PageBook=>399 P. Sulpicius Quirinius (cos. 12 B.C.) passed through a long career of faithful service to Augustus and

tuated their old political alliance with the Caesarian cause, but not through the Triumvir. His nephew and enemy, Paullus Aemil

wo of them were artfully interlocked with the descendants of Augustus through his daughter Julia, Germanicus being betrothed to

Arruntius himself (cos. A.D. 6) may have Pompeian blood or connexions through the Cornelii Sullae, cf. Tacitus, Ann. 3, 31; E.

and Antonius, it was not from tenderness for Tiberius. It may be that through the ruin of his daughter he sought finally to mak

llies; and in A.D.I, when his son and heir was consul, he came safely through the climacteric year of a man’s life, the sixty-t

was dispatched to a suitable island (A.D. 7). Augustus still lived through the scandals of his family. The disasters of his

y. L. Arruntius came of a wealthy and talented family, newly ennobled through his father, admiral at Actium, consul in 22 B.C.,

Lentuli, men of more recent stocks such as L. Nonius Asprenas (linked through marriage with L. Calpurnius Piso, with Varus and

ary execution of Agrippa Postumus. It was ordered and done in secret, through Sallustius Crispus, a secretary of state, in virt

grotesque intensity. Rome had won universal empire half-reluctant, through a series of accidents, the ever-widening claims o

. Material encouragement was required. Many old families had died out through lack of heirs, the existence of others was precar

office by flagrant bribery and popularity with the Roman mob, Lepidus through favour of Antonius, by a procedure condemned as i

ii. Opulent families spent their substance in ostentation or perished through ambition and intrigue. Novi homines from the town

3 Laws were not enough. The revolutionary leader had won power more through propaganda than through force of arms: some of hi

. The revolutionary leader had won power more through propaganda than through force of arms: some of his greatest triumphs had

k=>459 IN Rome of the Republic the aristocracy guided literature through individual patronage. As in politics, the other c

sar had not wavered or turned back. Announced by Apollo, his path lay through blood and war, bella, horrida bella, et Thybr

clientela of Caesar Augustus and the dynasty in the first place, and through the dynasty to Rome and the Empire. 1 The institu

cedure for dealing with cases of extortion. Moreover, the provincials through their concilia possessed an organ for voicing com

oisoning, attacked by Cassius Severus, defended by Pollio and rescued through the personal intervention of Augustus, who came t

ped as the open enemy of freedom and truth. But not for long. Coerced through official repression, or tainted by servility, his

ed with these four families, the Catonian faction suffered heavy loss through loyal or stubborn adhesion to lost causes Pompeiu

or the Calpurnii Bibuli. The Domitii, however, survived and prospered through the marriage alliance which the grandson of Caesa

history of the Republic. Tiberius, doubly Claudian, for the line ran through both parents, could look back through the annals

ubly Claudian, for the line ran through both parents, could look back through the annals of the family to that Appius Claudius

primacy among his peers but not at the cost of personal humiliation, through disaster and bloodshed as an aged despot’s disapp

cs from early youth. Like Brutus originally an enemy of Pompeius, and through that feud brought into conflict with Caesar, he f

erwards. 3 The Fabii and the Valerii regained distinction and power through the patronage of Caesar and of Augustus. Of the F

lpurnius Piso (cos. 15 B.C.). Pompeius the Great had descendants only through collaterals or through the female line, such as C

B.C.). Pompeius the Great had descendants only through collaterals or through the female line, such as Cn. Cornelius Cinna, and

of M. Plautius Silvanus from Tibur had become connected in some way, through marriage or adoption, with a new consular stock o

us had a share in the making of it, from the dynasts’ pact in 60 B.C. through civil wars and Dictatorship into the rule of the

Roman knights. He might have to sink further yet, to make his peace, through subservience or through adulation, with the real

have to sink further yet, to make his peace, through subservience or through adulation, with the real forces in politics knigh

, courtiers male and female. Quies preserved the house of the Cocceii through many generations; 3 but it could not ultimately p

method for an ambitious man to secure distinction and advancement was through the conduct of a successful prosecution. Under th

ent. It was also primeval, fated to return again when a state had run through the whole cycle of change. The Roman, with his

e last age of the Republic. Few were the nobiles who passed unscathed through these trials, from caution like L. Marcius Philip

Wealth, of senators and knights in the Republic, 12, 14; transference through the proscriptions, 194 ff., 243, 290, 351; owned

ucidation of the connexion with the descendants of Pompeius and Sulla through the marriage between Faustus Sulla and Pompeia th

e, pp. 424 and 496 f. For the Calpurnii and the posterity of Pompeius through the line of the Scribonii, cf. the stemmata of Gr