ty or stable government: that was the question confronting the Romans themselves , and I have tried to answer it precisely in their

e for power, wealth and glory. The contestants were the nobiles among themselves , as individuals or in groups, open in the electio

f personal ambition became a mark of the politicians who arrogated to themselves the name of populares often sinister and fraudule

ealth, linked by ties of kinship and reciprocal interest. They called themselves Optimates: they might properly be described, in c

petual menace; and the Metelli, for survival or for power, would ally themselves with the strongest military leader, with Sulla’s

s would not have given preference and votes against Caesar for one of themselves or for a mere municipal dignitary. In the traditi

and for domination, winning the office of pontifex maximus: the Julii themselves were an old sacerdotal family. 4 Sulla and Caesar

tenacious class; though depressed by poverty, by incapacity to adjust themselves to a changing economic system, by active rivals a

than the kings were their rivals and heirs in power, the patricians, themselves for the most part of alien origin. When Alba Long

this was patent and inevitable: many senators, many of the Liberators themselves , held preferment, office, or provinces from the D

body in the Forum. In fear for their lives, the Liberators barricaded themselves in their houses. Nor, as the days passed, did it

despite the deplorable fact that the Republicans did not dare to show themselves before the Roman People, all was not lost. The Di

with urgent and just claims not to be disregarded, as the Liberators themselves were well aware. Antonius occupied himself with

us: like other consulars averse from Antonius but unwilling to commit themselves too soon, he kept out of the way. Yet he probably

with a significance foreign even to the secret thoughts of the agents themselves . Cicero had first made the acquaintance of Caesar

ods, the attitude of the Caesarians could be surmised: yet Caesarians themselves were divided in allegiance, for Antonius, for Oct

matched with cruelty. Virgins of the best families at Byzantium cast themselves down wells to escape the vile proconsul; 4 and th

te of emergency, or that certain individuals by their acts had placed themselves in the position of public enemies. A popularis co

as the excuse for sedition. But the Antonii at least kept faith among themselves : the younger brother Lucius added Pietas to his n

It is evident that res publica constituta or libertas restituta lend themselves as crown and consecration to any process of viole

n these wars between citizens, the generals and the politicians found themselves thwarted at every turn by the desires of the sold

utus for his part will continue the fight against all powers that set themselves above the law. ’6 On receipt of an extract from

aring the mandate of the army and the proposals of Caesar’s heir. For themselves they asked the promised bounty, for Octavianus th

other personages of distinction more as a pledge of solidarity among themselves and to inspire terror among enemies and malconten

his army in defence of life or honour were now apparent the generals themselves were helpless in the hands of the legions. The pr

of his death. The rejoicing was premature: Senate and People steeled themselves to celebrate instead the day of Philippi. Ailing,

red their allegiance to Antonius, who, though a Caesarian, was one of themselves , a soldier and a man of honour. Peace with Pompei

ut feigned devotion to a created divinity, Divus Julius, assuming for themselves the names or attributes of gods, and ruling their

than consistency, appear to derive from inferences from the Eclogues themselves , not from ascertained and well- authenticated fac

k to demonstrate that the Roman was not a brutal conqueror but one of themselves , displaying not tolerant superiority but active g

aly against the plebs of Rome, got help from Italian men of property, themselves menaced. 4 Aid from Italy could be invoked for re

cess and abbreviated the stages, so that the sons of knights, knights themselves and finally Thracian and Illyrian brigands became

inction and for promotion that in time knights were willing to divest themselves temporarily of their rank to become centurions. 2

traditional prejudice: it was often expressed by the sons of knights themselves , sublime or outrageous in their snobbery. One of

ributed soldiers, officers and senators to the Roman State. They were themselves a part of it; the bond of unity was organic and g

ommonly had to wait for a number of years. Which was fitting. Knights themselves would not have complained. NotesPage=>369

were ostensibly sovran, the members of a narrow group contended among themselves for office and for glory: behind the façade of th

mmands to their partisans. The dynasts had destroyed the Republic and themselves , down to the last survivor, Caesar’s heir. Engros

d vigorous and public complaint when inferior Valerii sought to graft themselves upon his family tree. 3 Some frauds could perhaps

ventutis) of the Italian towns had a definite role to play. Knights themselves might rank with senators in the New State or even

enatorial rank and the tenure of high office were no longer an end in themselves but the qualification for a career in the service

versed in eastern affairs, former governors and procurators. 3 If not themselves absent on provincial commands, men like Lollius,

ions but with coalescence of interests not only represented, but were themselves the governing and administrative classes, recogni

ld not put up with Cinna in the place of Augustus. 1 Cinna was one of themselves , noble and patrician at that, and so was Tiberius

ortunae Caesarum proximi’. 2 Too much, perhaps, to hope for the power themselves but their descendants might have a chance or a po

tus to govern the great military provinces. They made alliances among themselves and with the family of the Pisones. 5 NotesPage

scredited, others displaced. Astute politicians who had not committed themselves too deeply were quick to transfer their adherence

owed by the patriotic poets. 2 The Romans were encouraged to regard themselves as a tough and martial people no pomp of monarchs

testable upstart. 9 PageNotes. 478 1 The men of Lugdunum describe themselves as ‘coloniam Romanam et partem exercitus’ (Tacitu

he causes and tragedy of their decadence. The nobiles have not spoken themselves . They have left no personal and authentic record

incipate. Before long, however, they became entangled, not only among themselves , as when a Piso, adopted by a Crassus, married a

o receive the consulate from the Caesarian leader. But the Caesarians themselves seem to fare little better. The vaunting Cornific

e families; 1 and the diplomats Plancus and Pollio, tenacious of life themselves , each produced one son at least. Daughters, howev

commands. Eight legions on the Rhine, brigaded in two armies, are in themselves a large part of the history of the first century

ere Messalla and Pollio, the consular patrons of Augustan literature, themselves no mean part of it. The Roman patrician and the I

novus homo alike had salvaged honour and fame, yet had done well for themselves and their families. Messalla changed sides, passi

an political liberty; and political rights are a means, not an end in themselves . That end is security of life and property: it co

, his Res Gestae are unique, defying verbal definition and explaining themselves . From the beginning, from his youthful emergence