of the provinces, bought the farms of small peasants, encroached upon public land, seized through mortgages the ancestral prop

e of its existence. To the old and wily Philippus in the direction of public affairs succeeded two men of contrary talent and

red. 4 Even in numbers there was a poor showing of consulars to guide public policy: only a few venerable relics, or recent co

bunate. Yet two men stood out in this year of another’s consulate and public glory, shaming the mediocrity of their elders. Th

e East to wear the robe of a triumphator or a golden crown at certain public ceremonies. 5 In December Metellus Nepos, sent ho

should be elected consul in absence or recalled to Italy to establish public order. 6 Nepos also silenced the consul Cicero an

A, 1775 ff. PageBook=>035 Cato had private grounds as well as public for hating Caesar, the lover of Servilia. 1 The

ve years. Pompeius’ purpose was flagrant there could be no pretext of public emergency, as for the eastern commands. 1 Transal

nd Cicero was compelled to give private guarantees of good behaviour, public demonstrations of loyal acquiescence. 5 The three

ceived nobody. Corruption reigned, and disorder, with suspension of public business. The next year opened without consuls. S

order again and secured the conviction of notorious disturbers of the public peace, especially Milo, to the dismay and grief o

’s best marshal, T. Labienus. 6 Then followed debate in the Senate, public attempts at mediation and negotiation in private.

uli were noted more for pride of birth and political caution than for public splendour or conspicuous ability in war and peace

tution against the craftiest politician of the day: he was declared a public enemy if he did not lay down his command before a

moderation. To the survivors of the defeated faction he behaved with public and ostentatious clemency. They were members of h

ce rumour that Caesar made an ostentatious refusal of the diadem at a public ceremony. ‘Caesarem se, non regem esse. ’3 Beyond

yrant envy of Caesar and the memory of Caesar’s amours with Servilia, public and notorious. Above all, to Brutus as to Cato, w

coalition party was the head and front of the nobilitas, paramount in public dignity, but by no means invulnerable to scrutiny

us Spinther and Ahenobarbus). PageBook=>062 were debarred from public life until restored by the Dictator. 1 Two of the

alive (cf. Suetonius, Divus Iulius 79, 4) but not very conspicuous in public . 4 Caesar, BC 1, 6, 4. 5 Caesar served under

gmented in personal standing to match their wealth. 1 As tax-farmers, public contractors, princes of industry and commerce, as

Arretium is named among the strong and steadfast knights who offered public opposition to M. Livius Drusus; 4 and L. Visidius

f; XXXVI (1912), 41 f.). Two Granii were among the partisans declared public enemies in 88 B.C. (Appian, BC 1, 60, 271). Sulla

Piso, the Senate decided to recognize the Dictator’s will, granting a public funeral. Antonius had played his hand with cool

s. Nor, as the days passed, did it become safe for them to be seen in public . The mob set up an altar and a pillar in the Foru

p; and the conspirators had not initiated him into their designs. The public support of Cicero would be of inestimable value a

mes. The plebs had acclaimed Caesar, the popular politician, with his public boast of the Julian house, descended from the kin

by a solid block of vested interests. They were careful to profess in public an intention to maintain all the grants of the Di

isans excited disquiet among those responsible for the maintenance of public order and the new government. Various intrigues w

e private conduct of a statesman cannot entirely be divorced from his public policy and performance, Roman aristocratic standa

n admitted by the friends of Brutus, to salvage political concord and public order. The Liberators were certainly a problem; y

d the favour or enlisted the services of the veterans in the cause of public order. As for the provinces, D. Brutus held Galli

Calvinus, who had fought in Thessaly, Pontus and Africa. There was no public mention of the nobilis P. Sulpicius Rufus, while

y, at the Ludi Ceriales, Octavianus had made an attempt to display in public the golden chair voted to the Dictator by the Sen

anus accepted the sign with secret confidence in his destiny and with public exploitation. 2 He caused a star to be placed upo

ation in Roman politics towards the end of July. The recrudescence of public disorder and the emergence of a Caesarian rival m

the People, friendly and favourable to the Liberators. 3 So much in public . What happened next is obscure. The enemies of An

pect. Yielding to this moral suasion, Antonius agreed to a formal and public reconciliation with Octavianus. The ceremony was

en breach with the party of Brutus and Cassius. His professions, both public and private, had hitherto been couched in a vein

to be distinctly amicable. 1 To their edict he now made reply with a public proclamation and a private letter, in a tone of s

er 19th). Cicero was absent. Such was the outcome of Cicero’s first public appearance since March 17th. The Curia did not se

Forum on November 10th. He had hoped for a meeting of the Senate and public support from senior statesmen. In vain his backer

to meet on November 24th, intending to have Octavianus denounced as a public enemy. The rash youth appeared to have played int

. But not all at once Antonius had not chosen to declare Octavianus a public enemy, nor did he now turn his military strength,

he Commonwealth’ and much more than his patrimony. The diversion of public funds was not enough. Octavianus also won the sup

sons. History, intent to blacken his rival, has preserved instead the public invectives which designate, with names and epithe

experience of affairs, vigour of personality and family influence. In public Cicero professed warm and eager admiration for th

onour to which many consulars must have aspired as due recognition of public service and political wisdom. The mild and huma

as they were to the easy and conventional reproach of neglecting the public good for the pursuit of selfish pleasure, might s

ranks of the Caesarian party: yet clearly of a kind to influence the public policy of Antonius. When he made his decision t

, for Cicero was close at hand. 1 Cicero refused to be compromised in public . Then Octavianus urged Cicero to come to Rome, to

uld reveal the strength which the Commonwealth could still muster. In public pronouncements Cicero went sponsor for the good c

expected. Now came the last and heroic hour, in the long and varied public life of Cicero. Summoning all his oratory and all

policy of their own, if only they were strong enough to achieve it. Public pronouncements on matters of high policy, however

s responsibility for the actions of Octavianus. 2 His policy violated public law with what chance of success on a long calcula

d Gabinius were a brace of vultures, rapacious and obscene. 2 Piso to public view seemed all eyebrows and antique gravity. Wha

decency. 3 There were more damaging charges than mere vice in Roman public life the lack of ancestors, the taint of trade or

in individuals by their acts had placed themselves in the position of public enemies. A popularis could contest the misuse of

most flagrant treacheries were gaily consummated; and devotion to the public good was supported by the profession of private v

ith the assassins of his leader and benefactor. Pietas and a state of public emergency was the excuse for sedition. But the An

e enmities should be composed, private loyalties surrendered, for the public good. Cicero had descended to that language years

hen they decided to desert the government, making common cause with a public enemy. Lepidus duly uttered the exemplary prayer

ecure sanction for almost any arbitrary act: at the worst, a state of public emergency or a ‘higher legality’ could be invente

as coolly described as the generous investment of a patrimony for the public good; 4 when the legions of a consul deserted, it

secured the execution of Roman citizens without trial on the plea of public emergency and the charge of levying armed forces

aim. The programme of Cicero had already been established and made public on December 20th. On January 1st came the time fo

before now imperiutm and the charge of a war to a man who had held no public office. But there were limits. The Senate did not

o’s programme, the outlawing of Antonius, violated private as well as public law. As Piso pointed out, perhaps with sharp remi

eet the ideas of Cicero. That the embassy would fail he proclaimed in public and prayed in secret. 1 The embassy set forth.

here could be no treating with Antonius, for Antonius was in effect a public enemy and beyond the law. Cicero himself had alwa

publican sentiments. Pansa supported him. Antonius was not declared a public enemy. But Cicero did not abate his efforts. As a

was Calenus and no other who proposed a motion declaring Dolabella a public enemy. This diplomatic concession perhaps enabled

ation was unbounded. Antonius and his followers were at last declared public enemies. For the victorious champions of the cons

o Notes) Ch. XIII THE SECOND MARCH ON ROME PageBook=>162 THE public enemy was on the run. All that remained was to ho

her’ Cicero would have no compunction about declaring the young man a public enemy. The danger was manifest. It did not requir

ver the African legions. In Rome a steady disintegration sapped the public counsels. No new consuls were elected. There was

wars before now when waged by Roman nobles. 3 Lepidus was declared a public enemy on June 30th. Before the news reached him,

in a posture of defence. Whether the Senate now declared Octavianus a public enemy is not recorded: these formalities were com

ry against Antonius and Lepidus for Lepidus, too, had been declared a public enemy. The last six months of the consulate of

the Dictator pardoned his adversaries and facilitated their return to public life. The Triumvirs, however, decided to root out

peians requited Caesar’s clemency. 1 The Caesarian leaders had defied public law: they now abolished the private rights of cit

citizenship no disproportionate revenge for men who had been declared public enemies. Rome shivered under fear and portents.

tly shown conspicuous kindness to the wife and family of Antonius the public enemy, thereby incurring blame in certain circles

oman knight from Picenum, Q. Sosius, who attempted to set fire to the public archives (Cicero, De natura deorum 3, 74). 4 C.

utionary leader, unveiled and implacable. Antonius, however, a former public enemy, was now invading Italy with what remained

1 Ventidius is not heard of again save for the ultimate honour of a public funeral. 2 Sosius took his place as governor of S

ied by overt breaches of the agreement. Marriage and divorce were the public tokens of political pacts or feuds. NotesPage=&

omplaisant. The marriage was celebrated at once, to the enrichment of public scandal (Jan. 17th, 38 B.C.)4. The grandson of

ntained a programme. Octavianus remitted debts and taxes; and he gave public expression to the hope that the Free State would

members of the Caesarian faction won glory and solid recompense. In public and official semblance, the campaigns in Sicily w

Pollio repaired the Atrium Libertatis and equipped it with the first public library known at Rome for to Libertas Pollio ever

oung Caesar built not only for splendour and for the gods. He invoked public utility. His minister NotesPage=>241 1 The

med the onerous duties of aedile, and carried out a vast programme of public works, restoring all conduits and drains, and bui

of law and oratory might confer the highest rewards. The practice of public speaking at Rome had recently been carried to per

y the rise of a new romanticism. Pollio, after his triumph abandoning public life, returned to the habits of a youth formed in

d. Oratory would degenerate into the private practice of rhetoric: in public , the official panegyric. Freedom of speech could

ver return. Freedom, justice and honesty, banished utterly from the public honours and transactions of the State, took refug

nclinations. How far Atticus and Balbus, who still lived on without public signs of their existence, were susceptible to suc

, human and divine. 1 Caesar had invoked his help for the creation of public libraries. 2 Escaping from proscription, though h

nt, now that Rome had relapsed under a Sullan despotism, retired from public life but scorning ignoble ease or the pursuits of

l and true, would have to concern itself with something more than the public transactions of men and cities, the open debate o

e company and friendship of Maecenas. Before long his poems were made public (38 or 37 B.C.). Maecenas encouraged him to do be

not to exploit the treasures of erudition that Varro had consigned to public use; if not the national antiquities, then perhap

ution: it had threatened to break out during the Sicilian War. 1 When public order lapsed, when cities or individuals armed fo

ution, but it had been arrested in time. After the next subversion of public order it might go farther, embracing not only imp

olitics, commerce and literature, these men formed and propagated the public opinion of the Hellenic world. Antonius went fa

, the marshals Ventidius and Decidius were dead. Pollio had abandoned public life, perhaps Censorinus had as well. Other parti

onius in the East and the sinister intentions thence deduced and made public by Octavianus and his band of unscrupulous and cl

aseology recur in the history of war and politics whenever there is a public opinion worth persuading or deceiving. The vers

ate on the first day of the new year. So far official documents and public manifestoes, of which there had been a dearth in

n were suppressed by armed force for the soldiers had been paid. To public taxation was added private intimidation. Towns an

lies took an oath of personal loyalty, and the towns of Italy offered public vows for his safety. 6 NotesPage=>285 1 Su

h of his life, or the oath taken at Tibur to the consul Antonius in a public emergency. 2 The oath was personal in character

such the oath could never change or lapse. By whatever name known or public title honoured, the last of the monarchic faction

questrian military service behind him, the first man to be accorded a public funeral in Sulmo (CIL IX, 3082). PageBook=>2

Antonius stood by his ally, his conduct would patently stamp him as a public enemy. 1 The winter passed in preparation. An o

was now building for himself a royal mausoleum beside the Tiber; and public sacrifices for his safety had been celebrated by

ll have been. No record would be likely to survive, when an important public event of the year has barely been preserved, let

s at an untimely moment, the delicate question of his own standing in public law. Like his policy, his powers were a direct co

glory and martial primacy of the new Romulus was not impaired by the public acts of his sixth and seventh consulates. Notes

ue of imperium proconsulare: as proconsul, he was merely the equal in public law of any other proconsul. In fact, his province

d of the Triumvirate, still gave him the means to initiate and direct public policy at Rome if not to control through consular

inanciers. The study of law, the art of casuistry and the practice of public debate had languished for long years. Certain p

ing his voice to the chorus. Pollio, the other ex-Antonian and former public enemy, still nursed his resentment against Cicero

1 Dio 53, 12. Dio assigns a part of Spain, Baetica, to the list of public provinces in 27 B.C. Which is not at all likely.

e since then. Some of these men were dead or had lapsed long ago from public notice. Nor was it likely that the ex-Antonians P

ge of proconsuls. Under the dispensation of Sulla the Dictator, the public provinces were ten in number. Now they were only

ectively (CIL 12, p. 50). 4 Dio and Strabo are inadequate here. The public provinces in 27 B.C. were probably Africa, Illyri

ly developed; and it is by no means certain that it held good for the public provinces from the beginning. Ultimately only two

ors for the military provinces of Illyricum, Macedonia and Africa, in public law merely a matter for the lot, was no less happ

therefore possessed a voice in the direction of senatorial debate and public policy, a vague and traditional control over all

ed. Such were the powers of Augustus as consul and proconsul, open, public and admitted. In the background, all the overwhel

ndependent and recalcitrant temper. Hitherto Piso had held aloof from public life, disdaining office. Augustus, in virtue of a

him. 4 Horace, Odes 1, 2, 25f. PageBook=>336 The anxiety was public and widespread: it has found vivid and enduring e

Book=>337 With his keen taste for realities and inner scorn (but public respect) for names and forms, Augustus preferred

Though the ruler shunned the holding of a magistracy, his powers in public law might be described as magisterial, an impress

ibed, the arguments indicated which might have been invoked for their public and plausible justification, Words and phrases we

effeminate and sinister descendant of Etruscan kings who flaunted in public the luxury and the vices in which his tortured in

nsistent and conventional. It was destined for exhibition to a docile public . Dispassionate scrutiny might have detected certa

a better Republican than all the descendants of consuls his ideal of public utility was logical and intimidating. Agrippa did

d men of the New State, honoured by Princeps and Senate, acclaimed in public and hated in secret. A sufficient company of th

Knights had been of much more value in the armies of Rome than the public and necessary prominence of members of the govern

knights. They belonged to the same class in society, but differed in public station and prestige dignitas again. A patent f

of their families for ever. In brief, Augustus’ design was to make public life safe, reputable and attractive. Encouragemen

y reason to expect the right kind of senator: equestrian distaste for public life and for politics (the perennial quies) often

onstrated his security by specious surrenders in certain provinces of public affairs and by the promise, it may be, of an immi

ut Egnatius). PageBook=>372 Egnatius Rufus was a cheap victim. Public disturbances recalled the authentic Republic, som

us. 2 While depressing the powers, Augustus intended to restore the public and official dignity of the supreme magistracy of

penetrated only by their contemporaries. Messalla raised vigorous and public complaint when inferior Valerii sought to graft t

e was still a place for nobles in their own right, without special or public merit. 7 Though supplemented by Caesar, the pat

as retained in the Principate for the choice of the proconsuls of the public provinces. The precise manner of its working is u

e, but aloof, majestic and heroic. Livia might seldom be visible in public save at religious ceremonies, escorted by Roman m

haps, but not against Pompeius or Caesar. When it came to maintaining public concord after the assassination of Caesar the Dic

unequivocal as the Roman People was led to believe. In this year a public monument called the Ara Pacis was solemnly dedica

province into his charge for short or for long periods. Nor were the public provinces classified as praetorian and consular.

monly devoted the profits of victory to the construction of roads and public buildings. The years before the final struggle wi

restoring temples; and the principes viri prosecuted the programme of public works. Statilius Taurus completed his amphitheatr

atius Rufus, which showed how dangerous it was to resign functions of public utility to individual enterprise. Augustus suppli

t a later date a definite body assumed the maintenance of temples and public buildings. 3 When Agrippa died in 12 B.C. the Sta

viri triumphales, the friends of Augustus, there was scarcely ever a public building erected in Rome at private expense. Nor

me ; 2 he controls admission to the high assembly; he takes charge of public provinces; he appoints proconsuls, though with re

public the great questions of policy had been the subject of open and public debate: they were now decided in secret by a few

ve to be expert preparation and firm control behind the scenes of all public transactions. The era of cabinet government has s

ipes of the Free State might take counsel together, in a more or less public fashion, about matters of weight; and the power e

onstitutional forces as the auctoritas of senior statesmen holding no public office, the intrigues of ladies at the centre of

tained unimpaired his native distrust of oratory, of democracy and of public debate. NotesPage=>407 1 Dio 53, 19, 3: ἐκ

ted the Senate to appoint a committee to consult with him and prepare public business. The committee, comprising the consuls,

committee of the Senate and the various judicial consilia were open, public and unobjectionable. They facilitated the conduct

ere open, public and unobjectionable. They facilitated the conduct of public business or the dispensing of justice but they di

ed the removal of Agrippa Postumus. 1 History records no such acts of public service to the credit of P. Vedius Pollio, the so

charged soldiers, granted donations to army and plebs and carried out public works. For the management of the various funds he

d that the motion was inspired in every sense of the term, that other public proposals of those momentous sessions had been sh

One of the most eminent authorities and agents in this department of public service appears to have been Cn. Domitius Calvinu

powers upon his deputy proceeded without any unfortunate incidents in public . With the death of Augustus, the Princeps’ powers

he entreaties of his mother, he persisted in his intention to abandon public life and showed the strength of his determination

s an agitation that Gaius should be made consul. 2 Augustus expressed public disapproval and bided his time with secret exulta

rk and momentous interval, little can be known. 4 With the steady and public progress of monarchy the importance of cabinet go

in the governing oligarchy whose claims must have been the subject of public rumour and private intrigue. As the family circle

embellished with rhetoric and consecrated in history she disgraced by public and nocturnal debauch the Forum and the very Rost

ives of her station and family8 was it necessary that there should be public scandal? NotesPage=>426 1 Velleius alone (

he luxury of a moral purge of high society. What induced him to court public scandal and sanction the disgrace on his daughter

death. The novus homo from the small town of Lanuvium was accorded a public funeral on the instance of Tiberius, who took occ

s conditional on the consent of Gaius; and Tiberius was debarred from public life. He dwelt in Rome as a private citizen. Even

r a brief term of despair until Gaius succeeded to the throne and the public safety imposed the ruthless suppression of a riva

f Augustus was admirably expedited: there were awkward moments in the public conferment of the Principate upon the heir whom h

en, preyed upon the conscience of Tiberius and revealed itself in his public acts and utterances. On the other hand his enemie

been chosen perhaps in feigned and malignant clumsiness. So far the public spectacle and the inevitable ratification of Augu

y removal of a rival was no less essential to the Principate than the public conferment of legal and constitutional power. Dee

audet. 2 It had not been easy. Opposition arose in the Senate, and public demonstrations. A cuirass, concealed under the

7 ILS 8403. PageBook=>445 Their names were more often heard in public than was expedient for honest women: they became

t, upon Pompeius Magnus; and the plebs of Rome was encouraged to make public demonstrations in the Forum or at the theatre, ra

of Augustus’ policy or an unequivocal testimony to the restoration of public liberty; but it does not follow that the poets an

ing a morally unedifying creed and likely to inculcate a distaste for public service. Stoicism, however, was salubrious and re

constructed for the people. 1 He could have added that there were now public baths as well. But complaints were rare. The poor

e insignis et armis. 2 The august motives of war and peace received public and monumental commemoration. The official treatm

sk? The cardinal virtues of the Princeps, so studiously celebrated in public , must have been privately canvassed and derided a

ding recitations, though to friends only and not to an indiscriminate public . 5 PageNotes. 483 1 Tacitus, Ann. 3, 75: ‘sed

ine words was intensified by loathing of the exuberant insincerity of public oratory and by the wars of the Revolution, which

witnessed stern measures of repression against noxious literature. 5 Public bonfires were instituted but not for such trifles

ival. The condemned works of Cordus, Severus and Labienus returned to public circulation; 2 and it was alleged that the Prince

Princeps proposed to banish the writings of Virgil and Livy from the public libraries. 3 The rule of Caligula brought no fr

With their disappearance the Fasti become less alien and truculent to public view. Yet the great Lucanian Taurus, Calvisius hi

l history he studied the genealogy of noble families and compiled the public careers of illustrious men. 3 The theme of histor

man only of all whom the Revolution had brought to power deserved any public repute, and that was Agrippa, so some held. 1 Can

for their ancestors. It was paid by the Principate, under pretext of public service and distinction in oratory or law, but mo

d’s son manifest, Lord of Earth and Sea. Sailors from Alexandria paid public observance to him who was the author of their liv

erected; their mailed statues and the brief inscribed record of their public services adorned Augustus’ Forum of Mars Ultor. T

t says. The adversaries of the Princeps in war and the victims of his public or private treacheries are not mentioned by name

e beginning, from his youthful emergence as a revolutionary leader in public sedition and armed violence, the heir of Caesar h

spolitik’, Klio XXX (1937), 232 ff WILLEMS, P. Le sénat de la ré publique romaine I–II. Louvain, 1878–83. INDEX The

163, 164 ff., 173, 178 ff.; a defence of his conduct, 180; declared a public enemy, 184; Triumvir, 188 f.; proscribes his brot

n Macedonia, 222 f.; his triumph, 222, 241; not at Tarentum, 225; his public library, 241; attitude in 32 B.C., 291; under the