t. In some way or other most of the consuls and governors of military provinces gain admittance to the narrative. The immense num

he rule of Augustus brought manifold blessings to Rome, Italy and the provinces . Yet the new dispensation, or ‘novus status’, w

us and to Tacitus. 1 All three sat in the Senate of Rome and governed provinces ; new-comers to the senatorial aristocracy, they a

bts, corruption and venality at Rome, oppression and extortion in the provinces . Crassus was in the habit of observing that nobod

f empire, as publicani in powerful companies farming the taxes of the provinces and as bankers dominating finance, commerce and i

d. Men of substance and repute grew yet richer from the spoils of the provinces , bought the farms of small peasants, encroached u

tion of generals led to the creation of extraordinary commands in the provinces . The general had to be a politician, for his legi

llegiance and personal following (clientela) towns and whole regions, provinces and nations, kings and tetrarchs. Such were the

all the world. The Senate was confronted by continuous warfare in the provinces and on the frontiers of its wide and cumbersome d

proscription and murder, and growing ever fatter on the spoil of the provinces , they lacked both principle to give inner coheren

authority over the coasts of the Mediterranean (the Lex Gabinia). No province of the Empire was immune from his control. Four y

his influence in the West Africa and Mauretania, all Spain, and both provinces of Gaul. The power and glory of the master of the

l or unclouded, endured for some fifteen years after Sulla’s death. Provinces and armies gave resources of patronage and mutual

and he had prevented the Pompeian consul Pupius Piso from getting the province of Syria. 3 But the great triumph was Cato’s, a

f that year, and perpetuate the system, Pompeius needed armies in the provinces and instruments at Rome. Certain armies were alre

ore than an ordinary proconsulate. To this end Caesar was granted the province of Cisalpine Gaul, which dominated Italy, for fiv

of Piso. Gabinius and Piso in their turn received important military provinces , Syria and Macedonia, through special laws. Gab

o years as well. 2 Despite patronage at home and armed power in the provinces , the ascendancy of Pompeius was highly unstable.

, and plausibly to be inferred for his colleague Nepos: Nepos got the province of Hispania Citerior after his consulate (Plutarc

candidature and loud threats that he would deprive Caesar of army and provinces . Some might hope to persuade Pompeius, making him

dominated the State, holding in their hands the most powerful of the provinces and some twenty legions. NotesPage=>037 1

, the last of the dynasts, took direct charge of the greater military provinces and exercised indirect control over the rest; and

sures were passed to check flagrant abuses. One law, prescribing that provinces be granted, not at once and automatically after p

showed his colours, blocking the long-awaited discussion on Caesar’s provinces and confounding the oligarchy by pertinacious pro

d arbitrary fashion. As a consequence of the law of 52 B.C. the other provinces from Macedonia eastwards were in the hands of men

sar was rejected and he was declared contumacious: six days later his province was taken from him. The Caesarian tribunes Note

her grievance Caesar’s tenure of Gaul beyond the Alps robbed him of a province to which he asserted a hereditary claim. 4 As for

ad been largely responsible for the conquest and organization of that province . Hence the spread of the name ‘Domitius’ there, a

n Caesar’s claim to stand for the consulate in absence and retain his province until the end of the year 49 B.C. are still matte

r late of new forces and new ideas, the elevation of the army and the provinces , the depression of the traditional governing clas

ody stood loyally by their proconsul, commanding armies and governing provinces under the Dictatorship. 6 Some, it is true, were

ut Rome had conquered an empire: the fate of Italy was decided in the provinces . In earlier days the Roman noble augmented his po

his friendship, the poor to his clientela. The practice spread to the provinces . Pompeius Magnus surpassed all the proconsuls bef

onsuls before him. In the West, in Africa and throughout Asia, towns, provinces and kings were bound to the imperator of the Roma

es’:2 he was an Oriental despot himself. In the West, in the Gallic provinces at least, the inherited and personal preponderanc

de himself known there and in absence conferred benefits upon his old province , as he reminded the ungrateful men of Hispalis. 5

clearly contemplated a system of two consular and sixteen praetorian provinces , cf. Mommsen, Ges. Schr. IV, 169 ff. Ch. VI C

ently attested. 1 Worse than all that, Caesar elevated men from the provinces to a seat in the Senate of Rome. Urban humour blo

left as such. Gallia Cisalpina still bore the name and status of a province . The colonies and municipia of this region, viril

Yet surmise about origins and social standing may claim validity. The province could boast opulent and cultivated natives of dyn

Italian element is more conspicuous in Spain, which had been a Roman province for a century and a half. The Peninsula contained

4 B.C.2 Of Caesar’s partisans, equestrian or new senators, from the provinces of the West, some were of Italian, others of nati

varied and valuable experience, now to be employed when they governed provinces and led armies of Roman legions. Rabirius did not

ot altogether satisfactory person, Caesar refused the government of a province , offering a sum of money in compensation. 6 But L

ators, many of the Liberators themselves, held preferment, office, or provinces from the Dictator. Vested interests prevailed and

rty of Caesar, the veterans in Italy, and the Caesarian armies in the provinces would have been too strong. The Liberators had

ant to Servilia. Rome and Italy, if lost, could be recovered in the provinces , as Pompeius knew and as some of his allies did n

till pending the Dictator appears to have designated or even allotted provinces to three of the Liberators, the consular Treboniu

sius). 5 Nepos, Vita Attici 8, 1 ff. 6 The ancient evidence about provinces and their governors in 44 B.C. suffers from confu

it was feared that the consul would not allow them to take over their provinces . 1 What happened is obscure the provinces in ques

low them to take over their provinces. 1 What happened is obscure the provinces in question may have been allotted on March 18th.

a, only two in the Cisalpina. For the rest, the only support in the provinces was distant and negligible the private adventurer

and Apamea was closely invested by Caesarian generals. So much for provinces and armies. Had the Liberators plotted real revol

ion of nominal deputy to the Dictator. But Lepidus was to take over a province in 44, and Antonius, elected consul for that year

t him but in Rome and in Italy rather than with the troops and in the provinces . Yet they were nothing new or alarming in the hol

n. At the end of March or early in April the Senate allotted consular provinces for the following year2 probably in accordance

th A. Hirtius and C. Vibius Pansa as consuls, Antonius would have his province of Macedonia. But the proconsul was vulnerable if

to Lepidus’ son. Moreover, Antonius could induce him to depart to his province . Lepidus, through his family connexion with Brutu

the services of the veterans in the cause of public order. As for the provinces , D. Brutus held Gallia Cisalpina for the rest of

y to parry that danger he would take that region for his own consular province and with it an army adequate to defy any enterpri

s known that Antonius intended to propose on June 1st to take another province in exchange for Macedonia, namely Gallia Cisalpin

nian legions. For how long, no indication. For the present, the other provinces of the West were a counterbalance to D. Brutus. 2

Comata, while Lepidus had already gone off to his command of the two provinces of Gallia Narbonensis and Hispania Citerior. C. A

NotesPage=>110 1 Ad Att. 14, 14, 4 2 For details about all the provinces at this time, cf. W. Sternkopf, Hermes XLVII(1912

rs 11 (1926), App. IX, 546ff. 3 Caesar had divided Africa. Sextius’ province was Africa Nova, where he succeeded Sallustius. Q

rian but also a kinsman of Brutus, hence a potential danger. But that province was soon to be stripped of its legions. As for th

to come from the other Caesarian military men or recent governors of provinces , few of whom possessed family influence or talent

the family, barely known or soon forgotten by the inhabitants of the provinces . The custom of prefixing or appending to histor

chose to get his command from the People. The tenure of the consular provinces , Syria and Macedonia, which had been assigned to

prolonged until the end of 39 B.C. But Antonius proposed to exchange provinces , to give up Macedonia, while retaining the Balkan

cedonia, while retaining the Balkan army, and receive as his consular province Gallia Cisalpina and Gallia Comata as well. Such

t of the year: they were to superintend the collection of corn in the provinces of Sicily and Asia. Complimentary in appearance,

idence: perhaps he suggested that Cisalpine Gaul should cease to be a province at the end of the year and be added to Italy. Tha

rly in August, Antonius induced the Senate to grant them the harmless provinces of Crete and Cyrene. Brutus left Italy towards th

ncial armies. Brutus and Cassius had left Italy, ostensibly for their provinces of Crete and Cyrene; of their whereabouts and tru

awaiting the end of his consulate, set out for the East to secure the province of Syria. Antonius had already acted. There was

able Plancus and from the pessimistic Pollio. When Brutus entered his province in April he found only two legions there. He proc

us. Antonius therefore resolved to take over one part of his consular province , the Cisalpina, at once. Then Plancus would raise

x. Pompeius to terms) and carried through the allotment of praetorian provinces for the following year. Crete and Cyrene were tak

d. Antonius marched northward with Caesarian rapidity and entered the province of Cisalpine Gaul. Before the end of the year he

tined for the wars of the Dictator and of the annual tribute from the provinces of the East. 2 It is alleged that he duly dispatc

and some of the best of the Caesarian military men were absent in the provinces . The earliest and most efficient of Octavianus’

B.C. Servilius may not have been a man of action yet he governed the province of Asia for Caesar with some credit in 46-44 B.C.

ro came close to being a neutral in the Civil War. Returning from his province of Cilicia, he made what efforts he could to aver

tors, as the congress at Antium showed, or any armed support from the provinces . Early July brought well-authenticated reports fr

rrupt, compelled him to write indecent verses. 3 This at Rome: in his province lust was matched with cruelty. Virgins of the bes

the Commonwealth excited emulation among the generals of the western provinces when they decided to desert the government, makin

constitutional government’. 6 Again, when private individuals seize provinces and armies, the higher legality is expressly invo

ntonius was patently in the right when summoning him to surrender the province . That point Cicero could not dispute. He therefor

might perhaps be defended: he was at least a magistrate and held his province through legal provisions, namely the acta of Caes

. Explicitly or not, that law may have permitted him to take over the province before the end of his consular year. Nothing extr

So much for Senate and senior statesmen. Without armed aid from the provinces , or at least loyal support from the provincial go

tonius, to the revival of the Republican and Pompeian cause. In the provinces of the West stood Plancus, Lepidus and Pollio, Ca

epidus or Plancus was C. Asinius Pollio in Hispania Ulterior, but his province was distant, his power unequal. A scholar, a wit

the end of the year. That they would in fact not go to their trivial provinces of Crete and Cyrene was a fair conjecture. Rumour

aly. It was also decided that governors should continue to hold their provinces until relieved by the authority of the Senate. Th

sent to Antonius; they were to urge him to withdraw his army from the province of Brutus, not to advance within a distance of tw

s Lex de provincia, which fixed two years as the tenure of a consular province : but that might have been contested, for Antonius

have been contested, for Antonius’ command was not a normal consular province , decreed by the Senate and hence subject to Caesa

would give up Cisalpine Gaul, but insisted on retaining Comata: that province he would hold for the five years following, until

nd Cassius should have become consuls and have vacated their consular provinces , that is, until the end of the year 39 B.C., prob

owever, no change in the military situation in the north. The eastern provinces brought news of sudden and splendid success. Whil

a and Syria, on their homeward journey, bearing the revenues of those provinces , were intercepted and persuaded to contribute the

confronted C. Antonius when he landed at Dyrrhachium to take over the province of Macedonia at the beginning of January. Brutu

Even more spectacular was the success of Cassius. He went to Syria, a province where he was known and esteemed, outstripping Dol

ing war against Dolabella, with an extraordinary command over all the provinces of the East. The revolutionary change in the Ea

a glorious victory to the credit of the patriotic armies and all the provinces of the East in the hands of Brutus and Cassius, t

Caesar’s heir commended itself neither to the generals of the western provinces nor to the Liberators; Cicero and his friends had

tus had already been legalized. Shortly after the news of Mutina, the provinces and armies of the NotesPage=>163 1 Phil. 1

the timidity, interest or patriotism of the governors of the western provinces , all had conspired to preserve him from the armed

agents of the Liberators had intercepted the revenues of the eastern provinces . As Cicero wrote late in May, the Senate was a we

ber 28th, when Antonius deprived Brutus and Cassius of the praetorian provinces which they had refused to take over (P-W x, 1000)

f domination the supreme magistracy in the city and the armies of the provinces . Depressed by the revived Dictatorship to little

lodius and of Fulvia, hence the step-daughter of Antonius. 3 Of the provinces of the West, Antonius for the present assumed con

ia Citerior, augmented with Hispania Ulterior for Pollio gave up that province . To Octavianus fell a modest portion Africa and t

; 1 and the aged M. Terentius Varro, once a soldier and a governor of provinces , but now a peaceful antiquary, found harbourage i

o the game of politics at Rome had been financed by the spoils of the provinces , extorted by senators and by knights in competiti

d. There was no other source for the Caesarians to draw upon, for the provinces of the West were exhausted, the revenues of the E

late the affairs of the East and exact the requisite money. About the provinces of the West they made the following dispositions,

d, invoking or inventing a proposal of Caesar the Dictator, must be a province no longer but removed from political competition

on, but no bar to dishonesty or dispute. Antonius now departed to the provinces of the East, leaving to his young colleague the a

g a junction with the generals of his brother who held all the Gallic provinces . Octavianus, with Agrippa in his company, had r

od Pollio with an army of seven legions. The decision to abolish this province and unite the territory to Italy had not yet, it

return of Octavianus’ best marshal and last hope. The Triumvir’s own province , all Gaul beyond the Alps, was held for him by Ca

his motley adversaries. Antonius’ generals in Italy and the western provinces , lacking instructions, doubted the veracity of hi

t, Pompeius from the south and west. If this were not enough, all his provinces were assailed at once. Pompeius drove out M. Luri

war against T. Sextius, the former governor, who had remained in the province , was at last overcome and killed. 3 Caesar’s heir

available for recruiting to both leaders, while Antonius held all the provinces beyond the sea, from Macedonia eastwards, Octavia

e of the river Drin in the north of Albania, the boundary between the provinces of Illyricum and Macedonia, formed their frontier

ate the Caesarian compact. 2 Plancus soon followed as governor of the province of Asia; 3 and immediately upon the conclusion of

rian orders, the primacy of Antonius seemed firm enough governing his provinces were the most prominent and most able members of

r a brief visit, Lepidus to Africa. Antonius departed for the eastern provinces with his young and beautiful bride and spent the

name of Pollio’s short-lived and dubious infant, Saloninus. Pollio’s province was clearly Macedonia, not Illyricum, which lay i

th Antonius gave standing, security and the possession of the western provinces . He at once dispatched to Gaul and Spain the able

esar in the Civil Wars, was one of Octavianus’ legates in the Spanish provinces after Perusia; 4 and T. Peducaeus, otherwise unkn

asily found in the years that followed the men to govern the military provinces of Gaul, Spain and Africa. 1 A powerful Caesarian

onius’ men celebrated triumphs in Rome Censorinus and Pollio from the province of Macedonia (39), Ventidius over the Parthians (

ned with Caesar, holding military command in the wars and governing a province . 1 The end of Caesar abated the ambition of Sallu

us was born of reputable senatorial stock. The rest all came from the province of Gallia Cisalpina, Cato, it was alleged (perhap

ius Gallus, of native stock from Forum Julii in Gallia Narbonensis, a province not unknown to Greek culture, was an innovator in

e both for archaism and for Alexandrianism, a proper regard for those provinces of human life which lie this side of romantic ero

ong duration. 1 East of the Hellespont there were to be three Roman provinces only, Asia, Bithynia and Syria. For the rest, the

, to rule as agents of Rome and wardens of the frontier zone. A Roman province , Cilicia, had disappeared, mainly for the benefit

Mélanges Bidez (1934), 287ff.; W. W. Tarn, CAH 1, 34; 66 ff.; 80. The province of Cilicia, if not earlier fused with Syria, cert

to Thrace, wedged between or protecting on front and flank the Roman provinces of Syria, Bithynia, Asia and Macedonia. These vas

Senate of Rome, take rank with their peers from Italy and the western provinces and blend with them in a new imperial aristocracy

curity of the Empire, not by annexation of fresh territories as Roman provinces , but by an extension of the sphere of vassal king

Bithynia since the Pact of Brundisium: who was his successor in that province , and who held Macedonia with the command of Anton

d deposed the treacherous Artavasdes. He turned the land into a Roman province , leaving there a large army under the tried gener

red or abandoned. A larger decision was looming. With Armenia a Roman province and the Mede in alliance, the Roman frontier seem

nly known governor in this period). Cyrene, of little importance as a province , was perhaps governed by M. Licinius Crassus, com

peius, shared the fortunes of his uncle as an admiral and governor of provinces , already designated for a consulate. 4 Prominent,

rinces any extensive or valuable territories that had previously been provinces of the Roman People. The system of dependent king

es of the Roman People. The system of dependent kingdoms and of Roman provinces which he built up appears both intelligible and w

ch he built up appears both intelligible and workable. Of the Roman provinces which Antonius inherited in Asia, three were rece

is dispositions, though admirable, were in some respects premature. A province of Cilicia was now shown to be superfluous. With

inal) reason for a provincial command in the south of Asia Minor. The province itself, vast in extent, and unprofitable to explo

Sicily might appear to portend the coming abolition of another Roman province . 3 The Triumvir pursued the same policy, to its l

ince. 3 The Triumvir pursued the same policy, to its logical end. The province of Cilicia was broken up entirely. Kings in the p

at Rome elsewhere in the East had undertaken a fresh commitment a new province , Armenia, with a new frontier facing the Caucasus

financiers. Egypt was clearly not suited to be converted into a Roman province : it must remain an ally or an appanage of the rul

y one, as when Pompeius requested confirmation of his ordering of the provinces and kingdoms of the East. Ahenobarbus held back,

la, namely OGIS 797 (Assos in the Troad) and ILS 190 (Aritium, in the province of Lusitania). A part of the last of these may be

nter passed in preparation. An oath had also been administered to the provinces of the West. As in Italy, the military colonies w

for some of his legions. Though no serious outbreak had disturbed the provinces , the repercussions of a Roman civil war would soo

ers, Polemo, Amyntas, Archelaus and Herod; and there were three Roman provinces in Asia, namely Asia, Bithynia-Pontus and Syria.

nal Roman practice as an excuse for not turning the land into a Roman province . 3 Acquiring Egypt and its wealth for Rome, he

ser danger, his own equals and rivals, the proconsuls of the military provinces . Egypt was secure, or deemed secure, in the keepi

tinguished renegade M. Licinius Crassus (cos. 30 B.C.). 2 The other provinces of the East, not so important because they lacked

f men prominent in the Caesarian party, the proconsuls of the western provinces :4 from Spain, C. Calvisius Sabinus and Sex. Appu

arfare was to cease: the generals of Rome were active in the frontier provinces . The exaltation of peace by a Roman statesman mig

disbanded, the veterans being settled in colonies in Italy and in the provinces . The land was supplied by confiscation from Ant

tion in Rome. It would be uncomfortable but not dangerous. Armies and provinces were another matter. M. Licinius Crassus, the p

m Gaul on September 25th, 27 B.C., was in command of a great military province at the time of Crassus’ dispute with Octavianus.

mvirate, and after its nominal decease, proconsuls had governed large provinces , taken imperatorial acclamations and celebrated t

ould now remove the proconsuls from the more powerful of the military provinces and control these regions directly himself, with

suls might govern, in appearance unhindered. Some would have military provinces in their charge, about which due foresight would

I (1933), 1 ff PageBook=>311 A settlement that yielded certain provinces of the Empire, nominally uncontrolled, but left t

name recalled his Caesarian and military character; and he ruled the provinces with an authority familiar to them as proconsular

B.C., when he solemnly announced that he resigned all powers and all provinces to the free disposal of the Senate and People of

That and nothing more. 1 For the rest, proconsuls were to govern the provinces , as before, but responsible only to the Senate; a

313 1 Dio 53, 12 ff. (not quite satisfactory on the division of the provinces , see below, p. 314). Dio does not explicitly ment

) follows Mommsen and assumes that it carried imperium maius over the provinces of the Senate. Which is by no means necessary, cf

s merely the equal in public law of any other proconsul. In fact, his province was large and formidable, comprising the most pow

signed them to proconsuls. Further, Cisalpine Gaul had ceased to be a province . Augustus’ own armies lay at a distance, disposed

sleading. He states that Augustus resigned to the Senate the peaceful provinces (53, 12, 2, cf. 13, 1): yet in his list of such p

he peaceful provinces (53, 12, 2, cf. 13, 1): yet in his list of such provinces occur Africa, Illyricum and Macedonia, where arme

ate. Their sole survivor, as warden of the more powerful of the armed provinces , stood as a guarantee against any recurrence of t

d giving account of it to no man; he coined in gold and silver in the provinces ; and he spent his money with ostentation and for

a network of his armed and devoted garrisons. Towns in Italy and the provinces knew him as their founder or their patron, kings,

name and substance. At Rome, it did not mark an era in dating; in the provinces it passed almost unnoticed. No change in the fore

emed necessary for his designs, the consulate and a group of military provinces . Definition of powers and extent of provincia mig

>326 So much for the consulate. In the manner of controlling the provinces the recent past could offer lessons, had Augustus

onference of Luca, Pompeius, Crassus and Caesar took a large share of provinces . From 55 B.C. they held Gaul, Cisalpine and Trans

in and Syria, with some twenty legions. The Cisalpina was no longer a province . Apart from that, Augustus’ portion was closely c

son was a great army of twenty legions or more. In recent years these provinces had been governed by proconsuls, usually consular

een under one governor, with several legates as his subordinates. 2 Provinces so large and so important called for proconsuls o

ence. The remedy was clear. Augustus in 27 B.C. professed to resign provinces to the Senate; and proconsuls remained, as before

nate; and proconsuls remained, as before, in charge of three military provinces . But Augustus was not surrendering power. Very di

o 53, 12. Dio assigns a part of Spain, Baetica, to the list of public provinces in 27 B.C. Which is not at all likely. Strabo is

as Baetica is senatorial. Syria at this time was simply the Antonian province (Syria and Cilicia Campestris), to which Cyprus,

e security for the Princeps, and eventually a multiplication of small provinces . No less simple the fashion of government. The

s, namely one consular and two praetorian. The division of imperial provinces into the categories of consular and praetorian is

d be described as legati in his provincia rather than as governors of provinces . To begin with, they are praetorian in a majority

a majority. That was to be expected. Consulars who had governed vast provinces as proconsuls, who had fought wars under their ow

nius, M. Herennius, L. Vinicius are not found in charge of military provinces ; still less such nobiles as the three Valerii, Ci

years, and hardly any consulars. Likewise in so far as concerns the provinces left in the charge of proconsuls. Under the dis

roconsuls. Under the dispensation of Sulla the Dictator, the public provinces were ten in number. Now they were only eight, abo

o balance the provincia of the Princeps - it comprised three military provinces , Illyricum, Macedonia and Africa. NotesPage=>

y (CIL 12, p. 50). 4 Dio and Strabo are inadequate here. The public provinces in 27 B.C. were probably Africa, Illyricum, Maced

the provincia of Augustus, the ordination of consular and praetorian provinces gradually developed; and it is by no means certai

loped; and it is by no means certain that it held good for the public provinces from the beginning. Ultimately only two provinces

good for the public provinces from the beginning. Ultimately only two provinces , Africa and Asia, were governed by proconsuls of

e to time men of consular rank would be put in charge of the military provinces of Illyricum and Macedonia; and such are in fact

rate and in the years after Actium partisans of Augustus governed the provinces with the rank of proconsuls and celebrated triump

won in Spain, Gaul, Africa and Macedonia. Spain and Gaul, the martial provinces of the West, were now deprived of proconsuls. Whe

irmly held by men whom he could trust. Northern Italy was no longer a province , but the Alpine lands, restless and unsubdued, ca

be conjectured that the Senate’s choice of governors for the military provinces of Illyricum, Macedonia and Africa, in public law

suff. 19) may well have held more than one praetorian command in the provinces : Illyricum and Macedonia respectively? Tarii Rufi

present, but his New State would require yet deeper foundations. The provinces must be pacified, their frontiers secured and ext

ustus’ provincia at once called for attention. He turned first to the provinces of the West, setting out from Rome towards the mi

of the Princeps, east and west, lacking, however, authority over the provinces of the Senate. 1 That was to come later and later

rippa at this early date possessed imperium maius over the senatorial provinces in the East has been argued, but cannot be proved

nd unpopular partisan of Augustus, was engaged in organizing the vast province of Galatia and Pamphylia. 2 Moreover the time mig

or the new government. 3 Not only that. Syria was the only military province in the East except Egypt. Egypt might seem secure

ven of the sincerity of his intentions, the Princeps restored certain provinces to proconsuls: they were merely Narbonensis and C

lands, as well as in Spain,2 but no serious warfare in the senatorial provinces . But now, as though to demonstrate their independ

no truth in this fancy a political suspect is not placed in charge of provinces and armies. PageNote. 342 1 Velleius 2, 88, 2

quently received proconsular power like that of Augustus over all the provinces of the Empire, and more than that, the tribunicia

be his minister, the organizer of victory and warden of the military provinces ; or, failing Agrippa, the experienced Taurus. Sta

or the empire of Rome it might be too narrow, especially as concerned provinces and armies. Despite all the delegation to depen

ng each part in turn. Augustus spent long periods of residence in the provinces , at Tarraco, Lugdunum and Samos. But the Princeps

ry monarchy. Twenty-eight colonies in Italy and a large number in the provinces honoured Augustus as their patron and their defen

f the Flavian dynasty a common soldier can rise to be governor of the province of Raetia. 4 Secondly, the freedmen. The commerci

alth: in alliance they perpetuated abuses in Italy and throughout the provinces , blocking reform and provoking revolution. The kn

ie or dwindle. For the most part only minor and indirect taxes in the provinces are now let out to tax-farmers. Banished from p

man business men to superintend the collection of the revenues of his provinces . They were drawn from the aristocracy of the town

thers). PageBook=>357 Not only that Roman knights could govern provinces , some of them quite small and comparable to the c

irst Prefect of the land, at the head of three legions. Certain other provinces subsequently acquired by Augustus were placed und

e of emergency an equestrian officer governed Cyrene. 2 None of these provinces was comparable to Egypt or contained Roman legion

the Roman citizenship as the reward of valour; and many men from the provinces entered the legions of the Roman People, whether

to its membership the descendants of kings and tetrarchs. 2 In the provinces of the West, from continuous immigration, from th

y Cn. Domitius Afer, the great orator from Nemausus. 2 Men from the provinces served as officers in the equestris militia; 3 fu

der. 5 Augustus exalted Italy; but the contrast between Italy and the provinces is misleading and erroneous when extended to colo

and erroneous when extended to colonies of full citizen-rights in the provinces , for they are an integral part of the Roman State

ioch. 6 It cannot have been Augustus’ aim to depreciate or retard the provinces of the West and that part of the Roman People whi

Princeps demonstrated his security by specious surrenders in certain provinces of public affairs and by the promise, it may be,

espotism. Next year Augustus himself set out on a tour of the eastern provinces (22-19 B.C.), while Agrippa in his turn passed we

s, it was right that they should be regarded and governed as separate provinces ; many of them by the size of their armies already

4 It was some time before their number increased through division of provinces , through new conquests and by the creation of Moe

utionary marshals, could show to their credit service in the military provinces before the consulate. Such were M. Lollius, M. Vi

financial interests with whom they once had shared the spoils of the provinces . Augustus was ready enough to bestow emolument up

ot the blameless possession of inherited wealth, but the spoil of the provinces . 7 His granddaughter, the beautiful Lollia Paulli

s were seldom frustrated by the established practice of balloting for provinces . The lot was retained in the Principate for the c

ined in the Principate for the choice of the proconsuls of the public provinces . The precise manner of its working is unknown, th

atisfactory. Moreover, the choice of a proconsul or the disposal of a province could be resigned by the Senate to the Princeps.

ceps appointed his own legates. Before long the more important of his provinces were held by consulars, who are the principal min

rigue and violence to the service of the State in Rome, Italy and the provinces . The Senate becomes a body of civil servants: mag

ing the most powerful of them through his own legates. Three military provinces , however, were governed by proconsuls. But they t

rinceps or justify his mandate. There was hard work to be done in the provinces and on the frontiers, calling for a perambulatory

Cantabrians, open up the Alpine passes, survey, organize and tax the provinces of Spain and Gaul, build roads, found cities and

B.C. furnished a deputy-leader and a partner in the government of the provinces . Agrippa was active in the East in 23-22 B.C., in

ppa was augmented, to cover (like that of Augustus since 23 B.C.) the provinces of the Senate. More than that, he received a shar

ight legions. Of these, fourteen or fifteen were now available in the provinces of the northern frontier, from Gaul to Macedonia:

ad the Balkan operations of M. Licinius Crassus greatly augmented the province of Macedonia. In the first years of the Principat

e the imperial frontier on the north-east consisted of two senatorial provinces , Illyricum and Macedonia, flanked and guarded eac

might shorten communications yet further, bind together the European provinces and avert the danger made manifest and alarming d

Illyricum in 14 and in 13 B.C. presumably the last proconsul of that province . PageBook=>391 In Macedonia M. Lollius (19

nsul’. This may mean that the Princeps had temporarily taken over the province or refrained from having a proconsul appointed. T

the Empire from close at hand, with long periods of residence in the provinces . Now comes a change in part the result of acciden

tus began to change into a permanent order of praetorian and consular provinces . Yet rigidity of system would have been foreign b

an emergency or to promote a partisan. Galatia-Pamphylia, the vast province that succeeded the kingdom of Amyntas, was first

tes of consular standing. 2 Galatia might suitably rank as a frontier province ; in the pacification of its southern boundaries K

cf. Klio XXVII (1934), 122 ff. PageBook=>394 The partition of provinces between Princeps and Senate in 27 B.C. was likewi

he Senate either to nominate a proconsul in an emergency or to take a province into his charge for short or for long periods. No

ce into his charge for short or for long periods. Nor were the public provinces classified as praetorian and consular. Africa, it

nish examples of consular proconsuls. The Senate retained Africa, a province of no little importance from its constant and ard

were removed from the proconsul and assigned to the governor of a new province to the north, the imperial legate of Moesia. 3 Wh

embracing no fewer than fifteen legions. The contrast with the three provinces of 27 B.C. illustrates the change both in adminis

ary protection which fits his conception of the original partition of provinces in 27 B.C., and reveals its own inadequacy. It is

mattered little. In 27 B.C., the Senate provided proconsuls for eight provinces ; in A.D. 14 for ten. In the appointment of gove

The young consul of thirty-three did not have to wait too long for a province Africa or Asia might be his by the working of the

even shorter interval, perhaps of barely two years. 3 As for his own province , the Princeps was not restricted in any way his e

at the cost of intrigue and corruption. Noble families enlisted whole provinces in their clientela and sought to exercise heredit

sited Spain. Two armies still remained for a time in Spain in the two provinces of Ulterior (Lusitania) and Citerior (Tarraconens

and destined after his consulate to govern one of the great military provinces , had not always been very long or very thorough.

. Of an unbroken career at the head of armies or in the government of provinces , legates of Pompeius and Caesar like Afranius and

y ‘militaris industria’, subsequently as consulars governed important provinces , one after another. These were among the greatest

ve years this man had charge of Moesia, for most of the time with the provinces of Macedonia and Achaia as well. 3 But Poppaeus

vion. No complete record exists either of governors of the military provinces or of the careers of the most eminent generals an

examples are pertinent and suggestive. The problems of the eastern provinces were political rather than administrative. The

398 After Varro, Agrippa is the next attested legate, governing the province in absentia; and there may have been no separate

though more prominent in historical record, was not the only Eastern province that called for special treatment. The legates of

consular. M. Lollius (cos. 21 B.C.) carried out the annexation of the province after the death of Amyntas; then he saw service i

is inscr. records the career of a man who was legate of Augustus in a province the name of which is lost but which earned him or

Piso, however, were nobiles. These men all held high command in the provinces of the East with which, indeed, both Silvanus and

ed, well equipped with ministers of government. But it was not in the provinces only that the principes were trained and yoked to

the region of Asturia-Callaecia had been transferred from the latter province to the former and that the two Spanish armies had

on passed at once to an equestrian prefect. 6 Again, appeals from the provinces were delegated to consulars. In 4 B.C. a new proc

I (1927), 34 ff.). On consulars, each put in charge of appeals from a province , Suetonius, Divus Aug. 33, 3. For a committee of

Ten years later, when Augustus departed on his second visit to the provinces of the West, Statilius Taurus was made praefectus

o the service of the Roman People at home and abroad. Plebs and army, provinces and kings were no longer in the clientela of indi

as in far Cilicia. No senator might depart from Italy and visit the provinces , save permission obtained. 1 Nor could he now dis

he controls admission to the high assembly; he takes charge of public provinces ; he appoints proconsuls, though with respect for

ved ; 3 and he conveys requests, modest but firm, to the governors of provinces . 4 Yet not entirely at the expense of the Senat

e: for the interpretation of this, see Premerstein (ib., 237 f.). 3 Provinces taken over: Illyricum in 12 B.C., Sardinia in A.D

ius Pollio had once been useful he appears to have been active in the province of Asia shortly after the War of Actium, perhaps

developed, freedmen did not hold the procuratorships of the imperial provinces . But it was a freedman called Licinus who assesse

reover, it was no doubt only the residue of the revenues from his own provinces that Augustus paid into the aerarium, which he al

uired expert advisers. As time went on, knights who had served in the provinces as procurators became available above all the Pre

ntrolled the greater number of the military regions directly, and all provinces indirectly. The statute of 23 B.C. may not have g

e Silius, Lollius and Vinicius soon gained experience in the frontier provinces , the consulate, and, no doubt, a place in council

both Gaul and Illyricum. Lollius was not famed for service in eastern provinces only. After his consulate he governed Macedonia a

as is known, were permitted by Augustus to govern the great military provinces . They made alliances among themselves and with th

etected on the consular Fasti and in the apportioning of the military provinces . The supersession of Sentius in Syria by Varus in

attention. Moreover it was advisable to display the heir apparent to provinces and armies which had seen no member of the syndic

aw conferring on him powers equal with the Princeps in the control of provinces and armies. 2 After conducting a census as the co

praetorships; 2 they received the consulate but no consular military province . Silius’ two brothers attained to the consulate,

ivals and equals of Tiberius, could hope that their sons would govern provinces with legionary armies certainly not Ahenobarbus o

Cornelii Lentuli turn up in succession as proconsuls of the turbulent province of Africa. 9 NotesPage=>435 1 Lucilius Lon

ved M. Valerius Messalla Messallinus (cos. 3 B.C.) as governor of the province of Illyricum, ‘vir animo etiam quam gente nobilio

iberius, was in supreme command. 4 In Illyricum, now divided into two provinces , Pannonia was held by Q. Junius Blaesus, the uncl

us Lepidus was in charge of Hispania Citerior. 1 These were the armed provinces of Caesar. Africa, with one legion, was governe

, promotion for loyalty or merit and firm rule in Rome, Italy and the provinces , that was not enough. Peace came, and order; bu

inted perhaps in the censors of that year. He departed to the eastern provinces . At once on his return in 19 B.C., and again in t

of Italy were scattered over the world: many preferred to stay in the provinces or drift to the towns rather than return to a har

trigue. Novi homines from the towns of Italy, and especially from the provinces , took their place, the rigour of whose parsimony

had been augmented in the north there was a new Italy, but recently a province , populous, patriotic and proud of its retention o

he necessary belief in municipal virtue rapidly extended to cover the provinces as well as Italy, with the same accepted terminol

example, Narbonensis supplies only two auxiliary regiments; and that province is early evident in the Guard (ILS 2023); where,

mme. In 13 B.C., when both Augustus and Agrippa had returned from the provinces , with the Empire pacified and new conquests about

ere dedicated to the cult of the numen of Augustus. 5 Italy and the provinces of the West had sworn a military oath of personal

. A similar oath, it may be presumed, was administered to the Eastern provinces when they were reconquered from Antonius. Later a

at least, soon after the territory of Paphlagonia was annexed to the province of Galatia, the inhabitants of the region, native

ons honouring the princes Gaius and Lucius. 1 The assemblies of whole provinces are now organized to display gratitude and homage

erent forms which the worship of Augustus took in Rome, Italy and the provinces illustrate the different aspects of his rule he i

recapitulate the sources of his personal power in relation to towns, provinces and kings. The sum of power and prestige was trem

pire might be described as the provinces’ revenge upon Rome. Army and provinces stood firm for the established order. The legions

to the house of Caesar. No less comprehensible was the loyalty of the provinces or rather of the propertied classes which the Emp

e proconsuls and publicani of the Republic took a heavy toll from the provinces . The Empire supervened to curb its agents and to

y). 5 Pliny, NH 9, 117 f. PageBook=>478 Yet on the whole the provinces were contented enough, for they had known worse,

was a military station. In Italy garrisons of the government, in the provinces the colonies were outposts of the ruling people,

c virtus. Tacitus, a knight’s son from Italia Transpadana or from the province of Gallia Narbonensis, recaptures in his writings

like Ahenobarbus, Piso and Paullus Fabius Maximus govern the military provinces , it is true. But a rational distrust persists, co

t choice. They also thought that they could safely entrust a military province , Hispania Citerior (Tarraconensis), to a descenda

andsons of Roman knights for the most part, govern the great military provinces of the Empire. Though all too often arrogant, s

les was passing to the novi homines, to the knights, the army and the provinces . After novi homines Etruscan, Samnite or Picene

essing rapidly behind, soon almost to overwhelm Italy and the western provinces in the cosmopolitan Senate of the Antonines. 1

and of Roman historical writing, Tacitus abandoned the Empire and the provinces and turned to what some have regarded as a narrow

er, both social and political. Electoral corruption, extortion in the provinces and the execution of Roman citizens furnished gre

t was averted by the adoption of Trajan, the governor of the military province of Upper Germany: less was heard about Libertas u

e in virtue of which Augustus controlled, directly or indirectly, all provinces and all armies. Yet these powers were the twin pi

, he might, like other rulers, be openly worshipped as a deity in the provinces or receive in Rome and Italy honours like those a

9, 94, 96, 97, 104, 126, 382, 482; in alliancewith Antonius, 109; his provinces , 110; behaviour in 43 B.C., 158, 159, 160, 163, 1

4 B.C., 110; in the Triumviral period, 189, 213, 233; as a senatorial province , 314, 326 f., 330, 394; wars under Augustus, 339,

and designs, 108; alleged embezzlement, 107, 131; arrangements about provinces in 44 B.C., 107, 110, 115, 170; relations with th

76, 490, 506; in the Triumviral period, 223, 259 ff.; as a senatorial province , 328, 394, 395; worship of Augustus, 473 f.; gove

ions with the Senate, 313 ff., 370, 406, 408, 410 f.; with senatorial provinces , 314, 330, 336, 394 f., 406; administrative refor

7. Auximum, 90, 92, 478. Avectius, Nervian, 475. Baetica, not a province in 27 B.C., 326; date of origin, 395. Balbus, see

Bithynia, allotted in 44 B.C., 103; under Antonius, 266; a senatorial province , 328; governors, 103, 111, 217, 220, 266, 303.

umstinctus, Nervian, 475. Cicero, see Tullius. Cilicia, no longer a province , 260, 271 f. Cilicia Aspera, given to Cleopatra

60, 271; cities founded there, 281. Cilicia Campestris, joined to the province of Syria, 326. Cingulum, 31, 90. Cilnii, of A

445 f. Colonies, military, 88, 111, 125, 196, 233, 287, 352; in the provinces , 79 f., 292, 366, 367; organic function of, 366 f

to the Liberators, 119, 126; liberated by Antonius, 272; a senatorial province , 328. Cupra Maritima, 31, 92, 473. Cura legum e

the Principate, 326, 339, 395, 406; governors of, 406. Cyrene, as a province of the Liberators, 119, 126; under Antonius, 266,

503; his essential nullity, 105, 503. Gallia Cisalpina, as Caesar’s province , 36; allegiance to the Pompeii and to Caesar, 74;

nce of, 36, 124; in 44 B.C., 103, 110, 124, 126; a proposal about the province , 118; as a province of Antonius, 189; abolition o

44 B.C., 103, 110, 124, 126; a proposal about the province, 118; as a province of Antonius, 189; abolition of the province, 206

t the province, 118; as a province of Antonius, 189; abolition of the province , 206 f., 209, 314; governors, 35, 36, 62, 64, 110

ftains admitted to the Senate, 501. Gallia Narbonensis, as Caesar’s province , 36, 74 f.; in 44 B.C., no, 165; under the Triumv

e provincia of Caesar, 47; campaigns of Octavianus, 240; a senatorial province , 314, 315, 329 f., 394; taken by the Princeps, 32

29, 32; consulate and alliance with Pompeius, 8, 33 f.; his consular province , 36; at Ravenna and Luca, 37; relations with Pomp

inia, 213, 216; at Actium, 297; wealth, 380. Lusitania, origin as a province , 395. PageBook=>554 Lusus Troiae, 445. L

iumviral period, 222 f., 266; campaigns of Crassus, 308; a senatorial province , 314, 315, 328 ff.; taken by Augustus, 394, 400 f

6, 40, 43; alliance with Crassus and Caesar, 8, 34 f.; his control of provinces , 35, 42; actions in 59–53 B.C., 36 ff.; sole cons

us Postumus, C., Augustan senator, 384, 466. Proscriptions, 190 ff. Provinces , control of, in 60–58 B.C., 35 f.; in 50 B.C., 42

onsular and praetorian, 326 ff., 393; Augustus’ control of senatorial provinces , 382, 406; provinces taken over by Augustus, 394,

n, 326 ff., 393; Augustus’ control of senatorial provinces, 382, 406; provinces taken over by Augustus, 394, 406; control of, in

83. Sardinia, in the Triumviral period, 189, 213, 216; a senatorial province , 328; taken over by Augustus, 357, 394, 406; gove

ff., 370 ff.; transformation during the Empire, 365 ff., 501 ff.; its provinces in 27 B.C., 314, 328 f.; loses provinces, 394, 40

mpire, 365 ff., 501 ff.; its provinces in 27 B.C., 314, 328 f.; loses provinces , 394, 406; prerogatives in the Republic, 153, 160

Sex. Pompeius, 189; conquered by Octavianus, 230 ff.; as a senatorial province , 328, 405. Silanus, see Junius. Silii, 382. S