lamed the original alliance of Pompeius and Caesar. 2 When Pollio set out to narrate the history of the Roman Revolution he

olve into separate kingdoms or else a renegade, coming like a monarch out of the East, would subjugate Rome to an alien rul

. In Pisonem 86. 4 Lucullus, owner of a palace at Tusculum, pointed out that he had a knight and a freedman for neighbour

corruption, obscurantism and oppression. The knights must not be left out of the indictment. Among the old nobility persist

character, so far from fading away on close scrutiny, at once stands out , solid and manifest. In any age of the history of

y prerogative or inevitable destiny; and their daughters were planted out in dynastic marriages. In their great age the Met

y votes. 5 The oligarchy knew their man. They admitted Cicero to shut out Catilina. The consulate, gained by the successf

questionable and hazardous means of the tribunate. Yet two men stood out in this year of another’s consulate and public gl

avert the penalty of death. It was the excellent consul who carried out the sentence of the NotesPage=>025 1 Sallu

y for personal ends and played an ambiguous game when civil war broke out between Marius and Sulla. Brutal, corrupt and per

, Pompeius combined with another army commander, Crassus, and carried out a peaceful coup d’état. Elected consuls, Pompeius

urces of patronage and mutual obligation for political ends. Men went out to serve under Pompeius as quaestors or legates a

Att. 4, 5, 1. PageBook=>038 The basis of power at Rome stands out clearly the consulate, the armies and the tribuna

erect a despotic rule upon the ruins of the constitution, or to carry out a real revolution. The constitution served the pu

and destroyed that building in the conflagration. Then they streamed out of the city to the villa of Pompeius, clamouring

. Then a second blow, quite beyond calculation: before the summer was out the generals of Pompeius in Spain were outmanœuvr

owning victory. But three years more of fighting were needed to stamp out the last and bitter resistance of the Pompeian ca

s sore need, as both his adherents and his former adversaries pointed out . From Pompeius, from Cato and from the oligarchy,

nt ordering of the State. It was too difficult. Instead, he would set out for the wars again, to Macedonia and to the easte

f. Carcopino, Histoire romaine 11, 597. 4 As W. Warde Fowler points out , his Roman contemporaries do not seem to have tak

ed intentions. As his acts and his writings reveal him, Caesar stands out as a realist and an opportunist. In the short tim

AH IX, 724. PageBook=>057 diverse elements planned and carried out the assassination of the Dictator. That his rem

erly survivors, nonentities, neutrals or renegades. A few names stand out , through merit or accident, from a dreary backgro

errorists; 2 while Pompeians and their leader himself, when war broke out , made savage threats of Sullan proscriptions. 3

lth and power. Centuries before, the citizens had risen to drive them out . 8 The attempt was as vain as it would have been

families were transplanted to Rome: hence the Julii and the Servilii. Out of the Sabine land came Attus Clausus with the ar

5 Cicero, Pro Caecina 102; Ad Att. 1, 19, 4, &c. Volaterrae held out till 80 B.C., Livy, Per. 89. PageBook=>088

But before these dispositions could all take effect, civil war broke out again and the military leaders accelerated the pr

(P- W, Supp. v, 375 f.), is certainly attractive. A case can be made out for March 21st or 22nd, cf. S. Accame, Riv. di fi

y have been allotted on March 18th. Early in April Decimus Brutus set out for Cisalpine Gaul; about the same time, it may b

to be reinforced by monstrous allegations when proof or disproof was out of the question: in these early months the consul

nfined for a time to the scramble for honours and emolument, to break out at the last into civil war again. Deplored by the

at the end of 45 B.C. (Ad Att. 14, 9, 3), L. Staius Murcus being sent out as proconsul in 44, cf. Münzer, P-W III A, 2137.

ned the burdens and the dangers of Roman politics. 1 Ambition broke out in the son, a model of all the virtues. 2 He marr

excuses and delays. 1 The Caesarian leader had left this competitor out of account. His primacy depended upon a delicate

onius may have spoken as he did in order to force his enemies to come out into the open. Nor was it likely that he would co

point that Dolabella, without awaiting the end of his consulate, set out for the East to secure the province of Syria. A

up his command. The threat of force would be necessary. Antonius set out for Brundisium on October 9th, proposing there to

PageBook=>125 Before he returned, armed revolution had broken out in Italy. Octavianus solicited his father’s veter

o march on Rome himself? 2 Octavianus took the supreme risk and set out for Rome. With armed men he occupied the Forum on

. The meeting never occurred Antonius on receipt of grave news dashed out to Alba Fucens. One of the legions marching up th

and many private persons swore an oath of allegiance,2 the consul set out for the north to join the remaining legions and o

s impeded by no doubts of his own, by no disloyalty among his troops. Out of Rome and liberated from the snares of politica

n hostilities, with leisure for intrigue and diplomacy. With Antonius out of the way a Republican faction, relying on the s

earliest of the great marshals, occupy the stage of history, crowding out the obscurer partisans and secret contributors. T

rd survives of his services to Caesar’s heir. After November he slips out of history for four years: the manner of his retu

, 14, 2. 5 Ad fam. 12, 2, 2. He hoped to squeeze Brutus and Cassius out of the consulate of 41 B.C. and get one of the pl

se from Antonius but unwilling to commit themselves too soon, he kept out of the way. Yet he probably lent a tribune: Ti. C

Servilius, however, was not altogether blameless, while Cicero stood out as the head and front of the group of politicians

se him, he will put up with servitude. ’3 But Cicero was able to hold out against Caesar. Though in the Senate he was once

ared unshakable. At last, after long doubt and hesitation, Cicero set out for Greece. He sailed from Pompeii on July 17th.

ng to attack the policy of Antonius, Cicero, it might be argued, came out into the open at last, and made history by a reso

ar. 1 The dynast Pompeius sacrificed his ally Caesar to the oligarchs out of sheer patriotism. 2 Octavianus, to secure reco

orn and superfluous to appeal to constitutional sanctions in carrying out a political mandate, a wider appeal thus lay read

all: that is to say, they were Caesarians. His harsh verdict is borne out by the facts. Only one of the five was an obstacl

Antonius but a Republican, Pollio found his loyalties at variance or out of date: it is pretty clear that he had no use fo

of Antonius, violated private as well as public law. As Piso pointed out , perhaps with sharp reminder of the fate of the a

rtius, though rising weak and emaciated from his bed of sickness, set out for the seat of war and marched up the Flaminia t

ervilius, and L. Caesar. Cicero, however, changed his mind and backed out . The embassy, he urged, would be futile: to negot

y after the defeat he got the remnants of his army into order and set out along the Aemilia towards the west, making for Ga

and concord. 2 It was on May 30th that Antonius and Lepidus carried out their peaceful coup. They had now to reckon wit

ilia he launched a final appeal on July 27th. 4 By now Brutus was far out of reach. Before the end of May he began to march

word decided. 7 For the second time in ten months Caesar’s heir set out to march on Rome. He crossed the Rubicon at the h

their return to public life. The Triumvirs, however, decided to root out their opponents all at once, alleging in excuse t

nd mature terrorist. 1 Condemnation and apology, however, are equally out of place. 2 The Triumvirs were pitiless, logica

victory of a party. 4 Yet it was not their principal purpose to wipe out utterly both political adversaries and dissentien

. For the Triumvirs it was expedient to drive their political enemies out of the land, thus precluding any armed insurrecti

y regarded as their just portion. A social revolution was now carried out , in two stages, the first to provide money for th

f taxation or confiscation drives money underground. It must be lured out again. Capital could only be tempted by a good in

country and the palatial town house once owned by Livius Drusus cried out for confiscation. 8 But a capital levy often de

t transcended all else, the avenging of Caesar. Pietas prevailed, and out of the blood of Caesar the monarchy was born. N

ldiers for land and money. Octavianus was to return to Italy to carry out the settlement of the veterans, Antonius to regul

ing to his young colleague the arduous and unpopular task of carrying out confiscation in Italy. A victor, but lacking th

ake open protest: they suggested that the imposition should be spread out and equalized. Then other cities in alarm joined

tle effect save to excite the suspicions of the soldiery. Riots broke out and his life was in danger. Rome and all Italy

omise was reached, but the more important articles were never carried out . War was in the air. Both sides mustered troops a

nd unite the territory to Italy had not yet, it appears, been carried out , perhaps owing to the recalcitrance of Pollio, wh

followed, slow but menacing, in his rear. The war had already broken out in Italy. 3 Etruria, Umbria and the Sabine countr

n and destroyed it utterly. 4 Nursia, remote in the Sabine land, held out for freedom under Tisienus Gallus, but was forced

e not enough, all his provinces were assailed at once. Pompeius drove out M. Lurius and captured Sardinia; 1 in Hispania Ul

current: he soon learned that a new and alarming civil war had broken out between his own adherents and the Caesarian leade

pect of destroying the rival Caesarian leader, might well seem to cry out for an explanation. It was easy and to hand Anton

h perhaps he had not been very successful. 2 He felt that he was well out of the tangle. Of subsequent events in Italy, the

is associates before a year had passed; again, at Perusia, he stamped out the liberties of Rome and Italy in blood and deso

atumque reget patriis virtutibus orbem. 1 The expected child turned out to be a girl (the elder Antonia, born in 39 B.C.)

lacked a party and devoted legions. His style of politics was passing out of date. Antonius, however, was still the victor

powers of the Triumvirs as conferred by the Lex Titia had already run out with the close of the previous year. Nobody had b

eace was not kept for long upon the Italian seas. Before the year was out mutual accusations of bad faith were confirmed or

Pompeius Magnus, the spectators in indignation rose up and drove him out (Velleius 2, 79, 5). 4 Velleius 2, 80, 3: ‘prae

nsular standing, he assumed the onerous duties of aedile, and carried out a vast programme of public works, restoring all c

There was material for another revolution: it had threatened to break out during the Sicilian War. 1 When public order laps

t by their support the government stood or fell. Grave mutinies broke out in 36 and in 35 B.C.,4 harbingers of trouble befo

Ventidius but the victor of Philippi should have driven the Parthians out of Asia. When at last his hands were free he depa

to lean more heavily on the support of eastern allies. Antonius set out upon his great campaign, leaving Syria in the spr

B.C Antonius, alert for the care of his dominions and allies, marched out again and conferred with the King of Media. Of an

Octavianus extorted the document from the Vestal Virgins and read it out to the Senate of Rome. Among other things, Antoni

fourth part of an individual’s annual income was exacted. Riots broke out ; and there was widespread incendiarism. Freedmen,

through intimidation. Of the manner in which the measure was carried out there stands no record at all. The oath of allegi

tesquely enhanced by war and revolution, by famine and by fear, broke out and prevailed, imposing upon the strife for power

head-quarters. His forces, fed by corn-ships from Egypt, were strung out in a long line from Corcyra and Epirus to the sou

from the blockade. 5 On the morning of September 2nd his ships rowed out , ready for action. Of his admirals, the principal

there should be a serious battle if they could help it. So it turned out . Actium was a shabby affair, the worthy climax to

Diplomacy, veiled intimidation and the pride of Cleopatra found a way out . The last of the Ptolemies scorned to be led in a

as restored confidence between men and respect for the gods, blotting out the primal curse of fratricidal strife: nascetu

l conditions’. Octavianus in his sixth and seventh consulates carried out certain constitutional changes, various in kind a

ages. Spain, a vast land, had not been properly conquered; Gaul cried out for survey and organization; Syria, distant from

provinces, stood as a guarantee against any recurrence of the anarchy out of which his domination had arisen. But Augustu

for attention. He turned first to the provinces of the West, setting out from Rome towards the middle of the year 27. In a

the exercise of auctoritas. 5 Such old-fashioned libertas was fatally out of place. Murena soon fell a victim to his indisc

urena’s brother. He fades from recorded history. When M. Agrippa went out , he administered Syria through deputies, residing

was no word of Marcellus. When Augustus recovered, he offered to read out the articles of his will in order to allay suspic

isans. Neither the measure nor the men were as scandalous as was made out then and since. Caesar preserved distinctions. Th

ency when the Free State was restored, Octavianus and Agrippa carried out a purification in 28 B.C. Of the ‘unworthy elemen

ore disloyal or misguided senators were not all tenderly to be spared out of respect for dignity: local magnates of the Ant

om the senatorial order to cover every class in society, not shutting out freedmen. 1 What in Cicero’s advocacy was propaga

most part only minor and indirect taxes in the provinces are now let out to tax-farmers. Banished from politics, the kni

he advancement of novi homines under the Principate? That is to leave out the influence of his adherents. The Princeps was

ry: behind the façade of the constitution the political dynasts dealt out offices and commands to their partisans. The dyna

sible evidences of military despotism. Next year Augustus himself set out on a tour of the eastern provinces (22-19 B.C.),

till owing money to Caesar for a timely loan when the Civil War broke out . 4 But the Triumvirate soon blotted out the memor

loan when the Civil War broke out. 4 But the Triumvirate soon blotted out the memory of Caesar’s generosity and Caesar’s co

d. 1 But Balbus began as a millionaire in his own right. Agrippa rose out of nothing: he came to own the whole of the penin

y Princeps or for consorts in his powers. In 27 B.C. Augustus had set out for the West without delay; and of the first four

ents of the drama of 23 B.C. could have foreseen. Before the year was out , Marcellus, the nephew of the Princeps and husban

here was delay from the side of Macedonia. A great insurrection broke out in Thrace. L. Calpurnius Piso, summoned from Gala

ed to the general’s council. Again, the equestrian officer might turn out to be a valuable person, with long years of conti

en praetorian, the others consular. M. Lollius (cos. 21 B.C.) carried out the annexation of the province after the death of

ke four years later. Plancus and Lepidus resigned before the year was out . NotesPage=>402 1 Suetonius, Divus Aug. 37

taries waited muttering on his threshold, the Dictator quietly worked out his plans in the company of his intimates. Octavi

discharged soldiers, granted donations to army and plebs and carried out public works. For the management of the various f

Frank, JRS XXIII (1933), 143 ff. 8 The freedman Polybius, who wrote out a part of Augustus’ will (Suetonius, Divus Aug. 1

his personal adherents were the real government. The Principate arose out of usurpation. It never forgot, it never entirely

and bided his time with secret exultation. 3 In the next year it came out . Gaius was to have the consulate after an interva

inst his life or was suspected of conspiracy Augustus quietly pointed out the folly of the attempt. Even if he succeeded, t

nus and P. Quinctilius Varus. But that was not enough. Gaius was sent out , accompanied by M. Lollius as his guide and couns

n schooled in the discipline of the camp or the playing-field: it was out of place at Court. His coeval, Germanicus’ young

conducting a census as the colleague of Augustus, Tiberius Caesar set out for Illyricum (August, A.D. 14). The health of

m, sed mersum et vino madentem. ’ PageBook=>437 They never let out a secret. It will be recalled that Seius Strabo h

A.D. 14, the Princeps died at Nola in Campania. Tiberius, who had set out for Illyricum, was recalled by urgent messages fr

concept of what was Roman in deliberate opposition to what was Greek. Out of the War of Actium, artfully converted into a s

e proud insistence on the inherited virtue of class and family stands out in Horace’s laudation of the young Claudii: for

n this matter there stood a valid precedent: Augustus inexorably read out to a recalcitrant Senate the whole of the speech

gate. Material encouragement was required. Many old families had died out through lack of heirs, the existence of others wa

the world. They were united now, and strong, a nation wrought by war out of alien stocks and strange tongues Etruscan and

and prime agent in the policy of regeneration merely perhaps carrying out the instructions of a concealed oligarchy or the

litary and Roman, devoid of pomp and verbosity; and he skilfully made out that his adversaries were petty, vindictive and u

, should be useful. Ovid accepted that principle and turned it inside out . He might have instructed the youth of Rome to ho

f wine, there was always the excellent water, so the Princeps pointed out , from the aqueducts which his son-in-law had cons

dedications in the temples. 2 That was not all. When Augustus carried out his organization of the city wards, the vicomagis

s was not more frequently drawn upon. Tota Italia would not have been out of place. The Princeps’ own form and features w

s the defence of Gaul against the German invader. When the Romans set out to conquer Germany, they intended to employ the l

, the legate of Syria, and the procurator Coponius proceeded to carry out the first census, provoking the insurrection of J

he plebs, could answer for their good behaviour. Disturbances broke out during his absence in the East a salutary reminde

est Latiaeque silentia linguae, the resentful Pollio rose and walked out . 6 Pollio professed to find little to his taste

ompetent. The campaigns of Quirinius and Ahenobarbus were simply left out altogether. Vinicius could not decently be omitte

er families related in some way or other to the reigning dynasty died out before long. The Claudii Marcelli and the Marcii

ignant protest in his privy council those wealthy dynasts would swamp out descendants of noble houses and impoverished sena

ort his Principate without scandal or inconvenience. Cato was already out of the way when Octavianus took up arms against t

), 69, 94, 143, 163, 197; actions in 44 B.C., 97, 102, 107, 109; sets out for Syria, 124, 166; actions in the East, 171 f.;

or, 374 ff. Epicureanism, in politics, 135 f.; anti-political, 247; out of favour under the Principate, 461. Epicureans

importance of, 48. Reform, moral, the need for, 52 f., 335; carried out by Augustus, 339, 440 ff.; dubious features of, 4

VII. THE CONNEXIONS OF VARUS This is based upon the stemma worked out by E. Groag, P-W XVII, 870, with the addition, by