the governing class how they could co-operate in maintaining the new order , ostensibly as servants of the Republic and heirs

plemented by a brief analysis of the working of government in the new order , will reinforce their verdict and reveal a certai

cy, they all became deeply imbued with the traditional spirit of that order ; and all were preoccupied with the fall of Libert

ts beginnings. Of necessity the conception was narrow only the ruling order could have any history at all and only the ruling

t his candidature. PageBook=>012 Romani’, was a name; a feudal order of society still survived in a city-state and gov

re not despised. Above all, it was necessary to conciliate the second order in state and society, the Roman knights, converte

ce and industry. The publicani were the fine flower of the equestrian order , the ornament and bulwark of the Roman State. 2 C

uestrian or senatorial, the possessing classes stood for the existing order and were suitably designated as boni. The mainsta

(P-W, forthcoming). PageBook=>017 Sulla prevailed and settled order at Rome again through violence and bloodshed. Sul

ere the Junii and the Domitii,6 who became firm supporters of the new order . 6 NotesPage=>019 1 That of Q. Servilius C

be elected consul in absence or recalled to Italy to establish public order . 6 Nepos also silenced the consul Cicero and forb

r the Commonwealth. 6 With armed men at his back Pompeius established order again and secured the conviction of notorious dis

ανὴς πιθυµία τo πρ τoν ϵ ναι ĸαὶ µ γιστoν (from Pollio?). 2 For the order of events in December 50 and January 49 B.C., cf.

contrast between the aspirant to autocracy and the forces of law and order . Caesar’s following was heterogeneous in composit

tions. In name and function Caesar’s office was to set the State in order again (rei publicae constituendae). Despite odiou

once absence, the passage of time and the solid benefits of peace and order might abate men’s resentment against Caesar, inse

te, but very precisely for the dignity and the interests of their own order . Liberty and the laws are high-sounding words. Th

efore. The memory of Sulla was loathed even by those who stood by the order he had established. Pompeius’ repute was evil eno

4 His father, C. Curtius, is designated as a leader of the equestrian order : not only that Curtius was ‘fortissimus et maximu

nce, never too warmly to be commended as champions of the established order . No mere concordia ordinum, with senators and kni

pany of bankers and financiers, the cream and pride of the equestrian order , old friends, loyal associates or grateful client

nd urban garb the predominance they had enjoyed in a feudal or tribal order of society. Office conferred nobility; and the fr

Metelli. For merit and military service he might enter the senatorial order under their protection: they never fancied that h

lence and confiscation, perpetuated a narrow tradition. Under the old order a considerable part of Italy, namely most of Etru

Italy should be heard at Rome but it was the Italy of the post-Sullan order , and the representation, though indirect, was to

of the Dictator, lacked prestige and confidence. The majority was for order and security. They were not to be blamed. Of cons

causes in turn, was sincere in one thing, loyalty to the established order . His past career showed that he could not be depe

xcited disquiet among those responsible for the maintenance of public order and the new government. Various intrigues were af

from confusion and inaccuracy: it has been brought into satisfactory order through the researches of O. E. Schmidt (Jahrbüch

summate skill as a statesman. His own security and the maintenance of order dictated the same salutary policy. By force of ar

understanding for Brutus, a Roman noble embodying the virtues of his order and class, and bound to him by ties of personal f

ted by the friends of Brutus, to salvage political concord and public order . The Liberators were certainly a problem; yet Ant

avour or enlisted the services of the veterans in the cause of public order . As for the provinces, D. Brutus held Gallia Cisa

arcius Crispus)1 and the garrison stationed at Alexandria to maintain order in the dependent kingdom of Egypt. Nor was trou

which is all that we know. Yet Antonius may have spoken as he did in order to force his enemies to come out into the open. N

nus, the gradual advancement of a Roman noble through the consecrated order of magistracies to the consulate, the command of

at they were a conservative people, devoted to the worship of law and order . The advocates of change therefore appealed, not

wealth and the power to do harm gave to the champions of the existing order the advantage of nomenclature. 2 The political

fraud. Libertas was most commonly invoked in defence of the existing order by individuals or classes in enjoyment of power a

ompeius and the oligarchs, turned his arms against the government ‘in order to liberate himself and the Roman People from the

has succumbed to tyranny or to anarchy, it is his ideal to bring back order again. The decisive act in a policy of treason ma

7 be called, being not so much ethical qualities as standards of an order in society or labels of political allegiance. Vir

Lepidus consigned to exile and ignominy, Plancus a servant of the new order , honoured and despised, Pollio in austere indepen

ion. On the day after the defeat he got the remnants of his army into order and set out along the Aemilia towards the west, m

itrary power under the familiar pretext of setting the Roman State in order (tresviri rei publicae constituendae). When a coa

on, his next act was to stem its advance, to consolidate the existing order . Nor would Antonius and his associates have behav

Triumvirs. In concord, senators and business men upheld the existing order and prevented a reconstitution of the old Roman P

ded the second act in social revolution. The foundations of the new order were cemented with the blood of citizens and butt

est of the principes were already dead, and the few survivors of that order cowered ignominious and forgotten in Rome or comm

between her brother and her husband or so at least it was alleged, in order to represent Antonius in an aggressive mood and i

f 33 B.C.3 By then, it was presumed, the State would have been set in order and the organs of government repaired or the posi

Dio 49, 15, 5 f. 8 Above, p.113. PageBook=>234 disturbances, order had been restored by land and sea. 1 The formulat

ability. The beneficiaries of that violent process, dominant in every order of society, were in no way disposed to share thei

riumvirs; and a mass of Roman knights, by their incorporation in that order , reinforced the bond between the higher classes o

hough a formidable body of interests was massed in defence of the new order , it lacked inner cohesion and community of sentim

nough at the best of seasons: Octavianus created new families of that order , for patronage but with a good pretext. 1 Among

d progress. He had once composed pamphlets, indicating a programme of order and regeneration for the new government that shou

he times now permit political satire or free attack upon the existing order in state and society. Republican libertas, denied

iumvirs it was more easy to witness and affirm the passing of the old order than to discern the manner and fashion of the new

to class. As after Sulla, the colonies of veterans, while maintaining order for the government, kept open the wounds of civil

it had threatened to break out during the Sicilian War. 1 When public order lapsed, when cities or individuals armed for prot

y, Calvisius Sabinus was appointed to a special commission to restore order in the countryside. 2 With some success a few yea

but it had been arrested in time. After the next subversion of public order it might go farther, embracing not only impoveris

onal patriotism, between a world-empire and the Roman People. The new order in state and society still lacked its shape and f

perished: the survivors were willing to make their peace with the new order , some in resignation, others from ambition. Aheno

ew monarchy could not rule without help from the old oligarchy. The order of knights had everything to gain from the coerci

the winter of 33-32 B.C. In the year 33 B.C., with his frontiers in order and Asia at peace, recovering from oppression and

ken up entirely. Kings in the place of proconsuls and publicara meant order , content and economy they supplied levies, gifts

rusia, were intensified obscure ancestry, NotesPage=>276 1 The order of events, not always clearly indicated by Dio an

ity and the crusade against the East were no doubt to be found in the order of Roman knights and among those senators most ne

p. I, III. 5 Cf. E. Groag, Klio XIV(1914), 63. PageBook=>299 order the execution of a woman. After negotiations mana

y neglected in the East, where he inherited the policy of Antonius in order to render it more systematic. Temples dedicated a

eed, though difficult to an invader and elusive from its very lack of order and cohesion, was neither strong in war nor aggre

t. 3 Above all, security of tenure was to be the watchword of the new order . 4 Italy longed for the final stabilization of th

er by their own ambition, inadequacy or dishonesty. Sulla established order but no reconciliation in Rome and Italy. Pompeius

ecution and end of Gallus episodically and not in clear chronological order , under the year 26 B.C.: his account of the proce

so far as Cicero had a political programme, he advocated the existing order , reformed a little by a return to ancient practic

izen. 1 Precisely for that end Augustus laboured, to conserve the new order , announcing it as his dearest wish to be known as

ageBook=>321 But Cicero might have changed, pliable to a changed order . So Brutus thought. 1 In the New State, which was

Cicero would easily have proved to himself and to others that the new order was the best state of all, more truly Republican

were waged in the main by men who reached the consulate under the new order . The position of the Princeps and his restored

ls. Whether the work of conquest and pacification went on, or whether order was held to be established, the territories of Au

ored Republic needed a friendly hand to guide its counsels and set in order its imperial dominions and a firm authority to en

of Egypt. In Rome the Senate and People might enjoy the blessings of order and the semblance of freedom: the chief men of hi

rious victory of Actium for Actium was the foundation-myth of the new order . There is something unreal in the sustained note

ght low a great people. Ruin had been averted but narrowly, peace and order restored but would it last? And, more than securi

nsurance, a tighter formula of government. Whatever happened, the new order must endure. Two measures were taken, in the name

ugustus recovered, he offered to read out the articles of his will in order to allay suspicion. 3 The Senate refused, as was

he munificent patron of letters, the peculiar glory of the equestrian order modestly abiding within his station; the people m

Senate had swollen inordinately, to more than a thousand members. In order that the sovran assembly should recover dignity a

existing dispensation), boldly extended the term from the senatorial order to cover every class in society, not shutting out

blic had disguised and sometimes thwarted the power of money: the new order was patently, though not frankly, plutocratic.

rther from the Principate land rose rapidly in value. 3 But the new order was something more than a coalition of profiteers

d not believe in equality. 1 But passage from below to the equestrian order and from the equestrian order to the Senate was t

ut passage from below to the equestrian order and from the equestrian order to the Senate was to be made incomparably more ea

en received the bounty of their leader. This unofficial army of civic order was steadily replenished. Down to 13 B.C., a card

nder (praefectus equitum) were reserved for members of the equestrian order , that is to say, for knights (including senators’

es temporarily of their rank to become centurions. 2 The equestrian order is recruited in two ways. First, soldiers or sold

(the son of a freedman). PageBook=>355 Thus was the equestrian order steadily reinforced from beneath; and it transmit

g tones and with genuine sentiment. But Cicero spoke for the existing order even had he the will, he lacked the power to secu

PageBook=>365 The widened and strengthened oligarchy in the new order was indirectly, but none the less potently, repre

ll the world were zealous and interested defenders of the established order cities, dynasts and kings, Roman citizens and n

of such eminent personages regularly entered the Senate under the new order . 5 Augustus exalted Italy; but the contrast betwe

t patrician houses and the most recent of careerists. But this was an order more firmly consolidated than Caesar’s miscellane

d provincial commands. The quaestorship admitted a man to the highest order in state and in society, the consulate brought no

called the authentic Republic, something very different from the firm order that had prevailed in the first four years of the

also Tacitus, Ann. 3, 66; 6, 29). PageBook=>375 Under the new order Cicero would have won the consulate without compe

and the Principate were thus safeguarded. But the mere maintenance of order did not fulfil the ambition of the Princeps or ju

According to Seneca (l.c.), Augustus gave Piso ‘secreta mandata’: in order that the legatus Augusti might override at need t

publicans, the provincia of Augustus began to change into a permanent order of praetorian and consular provinces. Yet rigidit

province of Asia shortly after the War of Actium, perhaps setting in order the system of taxation. 4 When the civil service

gains of Drusus in Germany: he was now to depart from Rome and set in order the affairs of the East (no doubt with a special

aramours and her accomplices: they were said to be numerous, of every order of society. Five nobles were among them. 1 The co

and Parthia, in the course of the same year Gaius proceeded to settle order in the dependent kingdom of Armenia. While laying

hen the Claudian returned to power, no testimony exists. 2 In his own order and class, it will be presumed, no lack of open j

Rome, Italy and the provinces, that was not enough. Peace came, and order ; but the State, still sorely ailing, looked to it

emboldened to doubt it. 2 More than that, the solid fabric of law and order , built by the untutored sagacity of Roman statesm

dogma that it retained liberty while discarding licence and achieved order without despotism, now suffused and transfigured

and historians who lent their talent to the glorification of the new order in state and society were merely the paid and com

tat molem et magno se corpore miscet. 1 Stoicism, indeed, stood for order and for monarchy. Catullus, however, could not ha

titution; and even with praise of Cato Cato stood for the established order . Virgil, Horace and Livy are the enduring glori

ich these men of letters belonged had everything to gain from the new order . Both Virgil and Horace had lost their paternal e

t, the sentiments natural to members of the pacific and non-political order in society. On the other hand, their genius was n

revenge upon Rome. Army and provinces stood firm for the established order . The legions were inspired with a fanatical yet r

opulace might still assert for itself the right of free speech, as no order else in the New State. They demonstrated against

ynasty at its heart and core and compromised the existence of the new order . A government may invent conspiracies for its own

, not least when they derived profit and advancement from the present order . For the sake of peace, the Principate had to b

devices that brought success in a changed and completely plutocratic order of society, steadily reduced the fortunes of the

uies or political quietism an inheritance from a lower and commercial order of society, the Roman knights. He might have to s

his protest against this practice, omitting the names of generals in order to honour instead the ‘gesta populi Romani’; 1 an

; quo magis ipsum sponte sua cecidit sub leges artaque iura. 3 So order came to Rome. ‘Acriora ex eo vincula’, as Tacitus

dicule and solid advantages of hereditary monarchy. 5 Under the new order , the Commonwealth was no longer to be a playgroun

r at least sterilized. As a result, history and oratory suffered, but order and concord were safeguarded. As Sallustius had o

tus’ most fervent prayer that he might lay the foundations of the new order deep and secure. 2 He had done more than that. Th

in 32 B.C., 290; at Gades and Corduba, 292; sentiments about the new order , 257, 351; as a cardinal factor in the Principate

erty, nature of, at Rome, 2, 59, 154 ff.; incompatible with peace and order , 9, 59, 512 ff.; guaranteed by monarchy, 516, 518