ompeius and Caesar and the outbreak of war in 49 B.C. might appear to open the final act in the fall of the Roman Republic.

Florus 2, 13, 8 ff.; Velleius 2, 44, I. PageBook=>009 in their open strife. 1 Augustus is the heir of Caesar or of Po

tants were the nobiles among themselves, as individuals or in groups, open in the elections and in the courts of law, or mas

posterity. It is manifest in action on various occasions, arrayed in open day to defend an extortionate provincial governor

the tribune Labienus and his associates on Pompeius’ behalf were more open and more offensive: a decree of the People was en

in his career, with no discredit to either. Caesar’s choice was still open had it not been for Cato; and Caesar’s daughter w

s too simple to be historical. Caesar strove to avert any resort to open war. Both before and after the outbreak of hostil

They would be able to deal with Pompeius later. It might not come to open war; and Pompeius was still in their control so l

am. 9, 20, 2. 6 Pliny, NH 15, 49 PageBook=>072 on secret and open missions before and after the outbreak of the Civ

a warning letter to Cicero, Ad Att. 15, 6, 2 f. 4 Ad fam. 11, 2 (an open letter of Brutus and Cassius). 5 Nepos, Vita At

n. 5 To be sure, the tyrant was slain, but the tyranny survived hence open dismay among the friends of the Liberators and ma

n no mood to be thwarted in his ambitions, he still hoped to avoid an open breach with the party of Brutus and Cassius. His

e spoken as he did in order to force his enemies to come out into the open . Nor was it likely that he would consent to surre

cter and station. Antonius imitated his leader which came easy to his open nature: Octavianus also, though less easily perha

young Caesar. 3 Though Philippus’ caution was congenital, his lack of open enthusiasm about Octavianus’ prospects was perhap

s or likelihood of secret plotting, the young adventurer required the open backing of senior statesmen in the Senate: throug

ech Pro Marcello (autumn, 46 B.C.). PageBook=>139 some kind of open letter, expressing approval of the government. Op

the policy of Antonius, Cicero, it might be argued, came out into the open at last, and made history by a resolute defence o

varied talent, for civil as well as military distinction; access lay open to merit as well as to birth; and the good states

l. But certain topics, not the least important, may never come up for open debate. The Senate listened to speeches and passe

respite: at Rome the struggle was prosecuted, in secret intrigue and open debate, veiled under the name of legality, of jus

not be monopolized by the oligarchy or by any party in power. It was open to their opponents to claim and demonstrate that

better to fight and to fall, as becomes a Roman and a Senator. 7 In open war the language of peace and goodwill might stil

n so long as Antonius retained his army. 2 Cicero had in his hands an open letter sent by Antonius to Hirtius and Octavianus

party. Octavianus did not intend to be removed; and the emphasis that open enemies and false friends laid upon his extreme y

eius in 60 B.C. and during the years following depended upon control, open or secret, of the organs of government. Pompeius

apprehension, the pretext of hostile propaganda, or the substance of open menaces: ‘Sulla potuit, ego non potero? ’3 The re

es of Italy marked down to satisfy the soldiery were not slow to make open protest: they suggested that the imposition shoul

and was laying siege to Brundisium, with Ahenobarbus and Pompeius as open and active allies. The affair of Perusia had been

s of vice and duplicity perhaps do less than justice to the loyal and open character of Antonius, his position as the collea

sentence of death for alleged complicity in the murder of Caesar; his open ally was Pompeius, in whose company stood a host

d of the year, Balbus the millionaire from Gades, emerging again into open history after an absence of four years, and the A

cedent set by the soldiers, they constrained the Caesarian leaders to open negotiations with After interchange of notes and

h only two remaining the alternatives seemed to be fast friendship or open war. Of the former, the chances grew daily less a

n; and it was generally conceded that Brutus’ choice of the plain and open manner was no affectation but the honest expressi

th something more than the public transactions of men and cities, the open debate of political assemblies or the marching of

olonies of veterans, while maintaining order for the government, kept open the wounds of civil war. There was material for a

the coasts. He was confident and ready for the struggle but might not open it yet. Here the two consuls met him in the sprin

inished the profits of empire and narrowed the fields of exploitation open to Roman financiers and tax-farmers. 1 Interest u

ire. 3 Caesar Augustus possessed indefinite and tremendous resources, open or secret—all that the principes in the last gene

restored. Such were the powers of Augustus as consul and proconsul, open , public and admitted. In the background, all the

ppear to presuppose monarchy. There is always an oligarchy somewhere, open or concealed. When the Caesarian armies prevailed

arty attained to the consulate and dispensed patronage in their turn, open or secret. Tiberius, being the head of the Claudi

he passage of dynastic politics into monarchical rule and emerge into open day in the court life of the ruler of the Julio-C

fferent. It was necessary to subjugate the Asturians and Cantabrians, open up the Alpine passes, survey, organize and tax th

er the Republic the great questions of policy had been the subject of open and public debate: they were now decided in secre

tatory committee of the Senate and the various judicial consilia were open , public and unobjectionable. They facilitated the

cial mandate conferred for merit and by consent. In 23 B.C., after an open crisis and a secret struggle, the modification of

a clearly designated heir was not always due to threat or exertion of open violence. The deed could be done in secret and in

hort, acquire a handsome share of the power and the profits. The most open political prize was the consulate. In 5 B.C. Au

dying before his sons attained their majority, a Council of Regency, open or secret, would control the government. It wou

and worked for her family, patient and unobtrusive. There must be no open evidence of discord in the syndicate of governmen

hat the task of controlling a crown prince in the East was peculiarly open to friction, dissension and political intrigue. 2

exists. 2 In his own order and class, it will be presumed, no lack of open joy and welcome, to dissemble the ruin of high am

essed with either offspring or permanence. Matches contracted for the open and avowed ends of money, politics or pleasure we

Augustus was able to prevent his domination from being stamped as the open enemy of freedom and truth. But not for long. Coe

After novi homines Etruscan, Samnite or Picene, Spain and Narbonensis open the roll of provincial consuls. They herald the E