osition of the Caesarian party in the form of a long digression. No less than the subject, the tone and treatment calls fo

and to remove some blemishes. It was not possible to register, still less to utilize, the writings and discoveries of the l

ion. Such accidents of duration and fortune the future held. None the less , the main elements in the party of Augustus and i

difference to the source and facts of power. Domination is never the less effective for being veiled. Augustus applied all

ity. It was no other than Claudius, a pupil of Livy. 3 His master had less exacting standards. The great work of Pollio ha

fragments or supposed borrowings in subsequent historians. 4 None the less , the example of Pollio and the abundance of histo

of the great patrician houses, Valerii, Fabii and Cornelii, none the less held in turn a dynastic and almost regal position

ghty contest and had broken into the citadel of the nobility:4 he was less assertive in the Senate, more candid to his intim

g their names to its epochs. There was an age of the Scipiones: not less of the Metelli. Though concealed by craft or co

’ The passage refers to the generation after 70 B.C. Cf., however, no less pessimistic remarks about an earlier period, Hist

cle widens from which the nobility is recruited and renewed. None the less , though the composition of the oligarchy is slowl

e warden of earth and sea’. 2 Not so menacing to outward show, but no less real and pervasive, was his influence in the West

r power of Caesar, and the services of a number of tribunes; further, less obtrusive and barely to be perceived through the

consulate, was signally defeated, to the satisfaction of Pompeius no less than of Caesar. Two years passed, heavy with a

soon clouded truth and equity. The nature of the political crisis is less obscure. Caesar and his associates in power had t

en Picenum, his own barony, went over to the enemy without a blow. No less complete the military miscalculation: the imperat

sarian party thus split by the assassination of the Dictator none the less survived, joined for a few months with Republican

sformed State. The composition and vicissitudes of that party, though less dramatic in unity of theme than the careers and e

icers, whether senators’ sons or not, commonly owed their commissions less to merit than to the claims of friendship and inf

f carrying his narrative down to the death of Caesar; and he produced less unobtrusive works of propaganda for his friend an

rom Caesar’s side an irruption of barbarians from beyond the Alps. No less real the menace from Pompeius, the tribes of the

re acceptable to the Roman aristocracy than the sons of freed slaves, less raw and alien perhaps than some of the intruders

, with added force, and render it at the same time more difficult and less important to discover precisely which worthy none

ellum Marsicum. The name Bellum Italicum is more comprehensive and no less revealing: it was a holy alliance, a coniuratio o

of that will be coolly discounted. From the influence of Cicero it is less easy to escape. The Philippics, the series of spe

r a time, or even Caesar, but not Antonius and young Dolabella, still less the respectable nonentities designated as consuls

rm on principle, he would have been a nuisance to any government: not less so, but for different reasons, the Caesarian youn

engraved. The revolutionary adventurer eludes grasp and definition no less than the mature statesman. For the early years, a

soon or late from the cultivation of the plebs and the soldiers. Not less the need for faithful friends and a coherent part

is leader which came easy to his open nature: Octavianus also, though less easily perhaps. Only two of his associates, so it

tonius from the precarious support of Lepidus his ally, from the even less dependable Plancus and from the pessimistic Polli

the annual pay of a legionary, promising, in the event of success, no less than 5,000 denarii. In the colonies of Calatia an

epute, surviving a cause for which better men had died, will none the less have striven through intrigue to maintain the new

sfactory. Λ∈ύκιος might be Balbus but Balbus’ activities were usually less obtrusive. L. Cornificius (cos. 35 B.C.), however

could only be won by adopting the adversary’s weapons; and victory no less than defeat would be fatal to everything that an

ntonius. Had he been on the right side, he would have been praised no less than that man from Gades, the irreproachable Balb

ot deceive the hardened adept at the game of Roman politics, none the less might influence the innocent or the neutral. Mere

transcending mores. Roman political factions were welded together, less by unity of principle than by mutual interest and

to risk their lives for intriguers such as Plancus or Lepidus, still less for liberty and the constitution, empty names. Ro

5 The author of this audacious proposal represented it to be nothing less than ‘laying the foundations of constitutional go

consulars had fallen to seventeen: their effective strength was much less . Various in character, standing and allegiance, a

vents. He already possessed the reputation of a time-server. 2 Even less reliance could be placed on M. Aemilius Lepidus,

public enemy is not recorded: these formalities were coming to matter less and less. Octavianus marched down the Flaminian W

emy is not recorded: these formalities were coming to matter less and less . Octavianus marched down the Flaminian Way and en

ed, the surviving consulars now numbered twelve at the most, probably less . P. Vatinius celebrates a triumph in 42 B.C.; 4 a

past. Less spectacular than the decadence of the principes, but not less to be deplored, were the gaps in other ranks and

mentary addresses to Fulvia and to the bald head of L. Antonius. 2 No less outspoken was the propaganda of the principals. O

pennines, they were arrested by Agrippa and Salvidienus at Fulginiae, less than twenty miles from Perusia their fire-signals

tive but not incongruous accusations of vice and duplicity perhaps do less than justice to the loyal and open character of A

the last adherents of Sex. Pompeius passed into his service. None the less , the young Caesar was acquiring a considerable fa

be fast friendship or open war. Of the former, the chances grew daily less as Octavianus emancipated himself from the tutela

ut the Valerii were soon to provide three consuls in four years. 3 No less conspicuous were the gaps in the ranks of the dyn

aracter. The archaisms were borrowed, men said, lifted from Cato; not less so the grave moral tone, flagrant in contrast wit

ernment by conveying a political message, unobtrusive, but perhaps no less effective, than the spoken or written word of Rom

may have been won earlier, in 40-39 B.C. PageBook=>265 at not less than a quarter of his whole army. 1 Higher estima

and on the Black Sea coasts. Nor was the preponderance of Antonius less evident in his following of Roman senators his pr

t he had bestowed upon his paramour the whole library of Pergamum, no less than two hundred thousand volumes. 1 The loyal ef

openly derided the revelations of the renegade Plancus. 2 None the less the will was held genuine, and did not fail in it

the colony of Cales in Campania. 2 Less eminent partisans might be no less effective. The Paelignian town of Sulmo had opene

ictorious in war with the help of alien allies was another matter. No less disquieting, perhaps, the prospect of an indecisi

y of his fathers and for his own dignity but not for any party, still less for the fraud that was made to appear above party

could transport across the Adriatic a force superior to his own—still less feed them when they arrived. Fighting quality was

8, 680 f. PageBook=>297 But Octavianus, though ‘dux’, was even less adequate in maritime warfare than on land. Agripp

of Rome. 1 No themes are more frequent in the decade after Actium—or less relevant to the history of those years. Octavianu

sius held his triumph on May 26th, 28 B.C. (CIL I 2, p. 77): none the less his command in Spain may have preceded that of Ta

exemplary kind of citizen. Names might change: Augustus was none the less a revolutionary leader who won supreme power thro

ach year one member of the board of praetors. 2 A noble, but none the less by now a firm member of the Caesarian party, was

he Princeps, and eventually a multiplication of small provinces. No less simple the fashion of government. The ruler propo

ius, L. Vinicius are not found in charge of military provinces; still less such nobiles as the three Valerii, Cinna’s grands

cedonia and Africa, in public law merely a matter for the lot, was no less happy and inspired than if they were legates of A

ia had failed, and the ill- advised project was abandoned. There were less spectacular and more urgent tasks. Two years befo

publicity. 2 PageNote. 343 1 Seneca, Epp. 94, 46. It was nothing less than the sallustian epigram ‘nam concordia parvae

oletariat of Italy menaced and shattered the Roman Republic: none the less , when offered some prospect that their aspiration

money. 4 Soldiers dismissed in the years 7-2 B.C. received in all no less than four hundred million sesterces. 5 The army s

any one class of the wealthy in the Principate of Augustus. None the less , Isidorus was able to bequeath sixty million sest

e position soon declines in importance. PageBook=>356 None the less , the military knight found ample occupation and i

Here as elsewhere Augustus, under the guise of restoration, none the less perpetuated the policy of Caesar and of the Trium

strengthened oligarchy in the new order was indirectly, but none the less potently, representative of Rome and of Italy. In

y, representative of Rome and of Italy. In form, the constitution was less Republican and less ‘democratic’, for eligibility

Rome and of Italy. In form, the constitution was less Republican and less ‘democratic’, for eligibility to office was no lo

ies at least no juvenile consuls are attested for some time. None the less , in the ordinances of Augustus as finally establi

is may be a result, not only of Augustus’ own enhanced security, with less cause to fear and distrust the nobiles, but of ac

olid merit. Caesar and the Triumvirs had changed all that. None the less , though modified, the old categories subsisted. 5

d Marcella, the niece of Augustus, and lastly the daughter, Julia. No less resplendent in its way was the fortune that atten

ess. It was her habit to appear, not merely at state banquets, but on less exacting occasions, draped in all her pearls, and

Augustus perpetuated the premium on specialization, for political no less than for military reasons: elderly novi homines w

e most eminent generals and administrators in the New State. None the less , certain examples are pertinent and suggestive.

principes of the Free State might take counsel together, in a more or less public fashion, about matters of weight; and the

nd the committee seems subsequently to have lapsed. 3 The Senate no less than the assembly of the sovran people was a cumb

f cabinets, the choice of members varying with the occasion. None the less , a certain number of prominent and representative

s fuissent’ (ib. 4). PageBook=>414 The historian might with no less propriety have turned his talents to the elucidat

to the Principate or rather, for the continuity of the government. No less evident the acute differences of opinion about th

. Appuleius (cos. 29 B.C.), a dim and mysterious figure, but none the less legate of Illyricum in 8 B.C., was the son of Oct

have commanded armies in the period of Tiberius’ seclusion. None the less , they were personages to be reckoned with especia

es of kinship or personal alliance with the Caesarian house. Scarcely less prominent the Valerii, though escaping notice in

t seriously impairing the interests or the prestige of Rome, none the less called for attention. Moreover it was advisable t

ostumus had been more vague, his treatment more merciful but none the less arbitrary and effective. Agrippa is described as

i from the Picene country; also L. Apronius and Q. Junius Blaesus. No less significant is the name of Lucilius Longus, honou

a war in Africa, a somnolent and lazy person to outward view, but no less trusted by Tiberius than the excellent Piso. 7

alone, a syndicate might appear preferable to a principate:5 none the less , it must be demonstrated and admitted that there

bes the execution of Agrippa. The arbitrary removal of a rival was no less essential to the Principate than the public confe

h dementia. The governing class was left with the satisfaction of the less decorative virtues: if it lacked them, it must le

oborant. Much more necessary was precept and coercion among nobiles less fortunate in politics and more exposed to temptat

to arrest a declining birth-rate. 5 The aim of the new code was no less than this, to bring the family under the protecti

operty. Large estates grew larger. Prosperity might produce qualms no less than did adversity. Horace, in whom the horrors o

and Augustus was a traditional member of the Italian middle class. No less genuine his patriotism: it might be guessed that

e over the Roman aristocracy was evident to the historian Tacitus; no less evident that it was slow in operation and due to

no interpretation could these aliens pass for Italian peasants, still less for members of the Italian bourgeoisie. 2 But the

ain and Narbonensis would be discovered in large numbers. 3 There was less need for deception in the armies of the East. Gal

. Constructive proposals from neutral or partisan men of letters were less in evidence. There was Sallustius, it is true, at

e is no warrant for loose talk about conversion to Stoicism. None the less , this Epicurean man appeared to surrender to a ro

least enhanced. Romulus was a king, the favourite of plebs and army, less acceptable to the Senate. If the later books of

id and convincing form. An excellent source soon became available, no less than the biographical memoir in which the Princep

mily had been despoiled of property during the Civil Wars. 6 None the less , the poet had eminent connexions, the Aelii Galli

of a girl who had produced five children at one birth. 5 For reasons less obvious a centenarian actress was produced at gam

oyalty to the Princeps and confidence in the government. There were less spectacular but more permanent methods of suggest

nal devotion to the person of Augustus and to the house of Caesar. No less comprehensible was the loyalty of the provinces o

80 That might be doubted. The person and habits of Augustus were no less detestable than his rule. Of his morals, the trad

ary to say much about that. Less advertised by the government, but no less distasteful to the nobiles, were the domestic par

ms of propaganda. Though the realities of power were veiled, none the less senators had an opportunity in the Curia or in th

uses of Asia, now holding consular rank in the imperial Senate. Still less does he venture to attack the opulent provincial

of Carrinas and Laronius. With their disappearance the Fasti become less alien and truculent to public view. Yet the great

xion with the Pompeii. 3 Association with the reigning dynasty was no less dangerous. Like the nobiles, the new consular fam

t of a successful prosecution. Under the Empire the law courts became less political, justice less a matter of partisan inte

ution. Under the Empire the law courts became less political, justice less a matter of partisan interpretation. At the same

ithin definite channels and adapted to a slower rhythm, were none the less advancing remorselessly. The power of the nobiles

r, was hasty and provocative, transient in its effects. Less obvious, less advertised and less discussed is Claudius’ use of

vocative, transient in its effects. Less obvious, less advertised and less discussed is Claudius’ use of Greeks as procurato

us would have illumined history with a constellation of characters no less vivid and detestable. The novus homo, avid and th

ipped off all pretence in the race for wealth and power. The nobilis, less obtrusive, might be no better. After a social rev

of law, one man ruled. 2 This is his comment on Tiberius. It was no less true of the Principate of Augustus rather more so

on of Trajan, the governor of the military province of Upper Germany: less was heard about Libertas under his firm regiment.

onsolidated his own regime and the new system of government, none the less made the task of his successor more delicate and

career, the achievements and character of his rule. The record is no less instructive for what it omits than for what it sa

ulant and pointless to complain of omission and misrepresentation. No less vain the attempt to discover ultimate derivation

Rome for his great merits and for reasons of high politics. None the less , it will not help to describe the Res Gestae as t

ing p. 362, where, as the author admits, there are uncertainties. Not less so in the matter of the Arruntii, cf. above, pp.