young man, now aged twenty-three, raised on his own initiative three legions from the tenants, clients and veterans of his fat

ing in their hands the most powerful of the provinces and some twenty legions . NotesPage=>037 1 Note the extravagant pro

ith his foot in the land of Italy, as he had rashly boasted. No armed legions rose at his call. Even Picenum, his own barony, w

and grandiose to evacuate Italy, leaving Caesar entrapped between the legions of Spain and the hosts of all the East, and then

ompeius made his escape across the Adriatic carrying with him several legions and a large number of senators, a grievous burden

peius in Spain were outmanœuvred and overcome. Yet even so, until the legions joined battle on the plain of Pharsalus, the odds

the true relation between Pompeius’ prestige and Caesar’s war-trained legions . 6 Others sought protection from their enemies, r

attained. For protection against his enemies Caesar appealed to the legions , devoted and invincible they could tear down the

’ 4 Bell. Hisp. 42, 7: ‘an me deleto non animum advertebatis habere legions populum Romanum quae non solum vobis obsistere se

d knights, such was the party of Caesar. With the Roman plebs and the legions of Gaul, a group of ancient families, young men o

tain revealed to the world. The levies of northern Italy filled the legions of Caesar with devoted recruits. 3 His new conque

ra. 4 Caesar rivalled and surpassed the elder dynast: he placed three legions in Egypt under the charge of a certain Rufinus, t

ll pretend that the Dictator promoted partisans from the ranks of the legions , with no interval of time or status. An ex-centur

w to be employed when they governed provinces and led armies of Roman legions . Rabirius did not merely declaim about fleets and

presentative of the Roman People should have been the soldiers of the legions and the inhabitants of the towns of Italy. With t

e presumed, Trebonius went to Asia, Cimber to Bithynia. There were no legions at all in Asia and in Bithynia, only two in the C

he strong place of Apamea. His forces were inconsiderable, one or two legions ; and Apamea was closely invested by Caesarian gen

rcussions outside Rome, provoking a native rising in Gaul or else the legions might invade Italy to avenge the Imperator. Unabl

ith Macedonia went Caesar’s Balkan army, six of the best of the Roman legions . From his possession of the State papers and pr

quered by Caesar):1 these lands he would garrison with the Macedonian legions . For how long, no indication. For the present, th

xtius were in command of the armies of Illyricum and of Africa, three legions each. 3 Q. Hortensius, NotesPage=>110 1 Ad

re he succeeded Sallustius. Q. Cornificius held Africa Vetus, without legions ; his predecessor had been C. Calvisius Sabinus.

a potential danger. But that province was soon to be stripped of its legions . As for the East, Trebonius and Cimber might have

ave Asia and Bithynia: the only armies east of Macedonia were the six legions under the Caesarian generals beleaguering Apamea

us, proconsul of Bithynia in 45, took away with him his army of three legions to be used against Bassus, P-W XIV, 1556. Ch.

unerative as an investment were the soldiers of Caesar, active in the legions or settled in the military colonies of Italy. Whi

g news came to Rome through private sources. It was reported that the legions at Alexandria in Egypt were riotous, that Cassius

c Pollio. When Brutus entered his province in April he found only two legions there. He proceeded to raise several more on his

ium on October 9th, proposing there to pick up four of the Macedonian legions and send them or march with them to northern Ital

e, to cross the central mountains and intercept three of the consul’s legions which were moving along the eastern coast of Ital

nt. 3 The coup failed. Antonius was approaching with the Macedonian legions . The veterans refused to fight. Many deserted and

tonius on receipt of grave news dashed out to Alba Fucens. One of the legions marching up the eastern coast of Italy, the legio

f allegiance,2 the consul set out for the north to join the remaining legions and occupy Cisalpine Gaul. Fresh levies were need

he generous investment of a patrimony for the public good; 4 when the legions of a consul deserted, it was taken to prove that

legates in advance, the one to Syria, the other to secure for him the legions in Egypt. Yet the East was not altogether barren

a Vatinius the governor of Illyricum had been unable to prevent his legions from passing over. Such was the situation that co

he was known and esteemed, outstripping Dolabella. There he found six legions , under the Caesarian generals Staius Murcus and M

us. That was not all. The Caesarian A. Allienus was conducting four legions northwards from Egypt through Palestine, to join

s of his successes: his usurpation in the East and seizure of a dozen legions was not confirmed until more than two months had

nd Hirtius avoided battle, waiting for Pansa to come up with his four legions of recruits. Pansa had left Rome about March 19th

alry. Brutus had none; and the exhilaration of a victory in which his legions had so small a share could not compensate the rav

coming up in the rear of the constitutional forces with three veteran legions raised in his native Picenum. Caesar’s heir refus

on, Decimus Brutus, however, a triumph, the charge of the war and the legions of the dead consuls. 2 Orations NotesPage=>1

leader, patron and friend. Octavianus, his forces augmented by the legions of Pansa, which he refused to surrender to D. Bru

ted. If Brutus and Cassius came to Italy with their host of seventeen legions , his ‘father’ Cicero would have no compunction ab

on May 3rd he was met by the trusty Ventidius with the three veteran legions . The first round was won. The next task was to sa

s towards the end of June. Their combined forces amounted to fourteen legions , imposing in name alone. Four were veteran, the r

most violent of terms. 1 Now Pollio supervened, coming up with two legions from Hispania Ulterior. Earlier in the year he ha

. PageBook=>167 their estates; and the soldiers serving in the legions might expect ultimate recompense from their gener

all Italy’. 2 The energy of Antonius, the devotion of the Caesarian legions , the timidity, interest or patriotism of the gove

s from Macedonia. Already there was talk of bringing over the African legions . In Rome a steady disintegration sapped the pub

set out to march on Rome. He crossed the Rubicon at the head of eight legions and then pushed on with picked troops, moving wit

ray of hope shone upon the sinking hulk of the Republic. Two veteran legions from Africa arrived at Ostia. Along with a legion

us marched down the Flaminian Way and entered the city unopposed. The legions of the Republic went over without hesitation. A p

some who did not lose hope. In the evening came a rumour that the two legions which had deserted the consul for Octavianus in t

ll to receive as much again. With a devoted army, augmented to eleven legions , the consul left Rome for the reckoning with Anto

ther. They were instruments rather than agents. Behind them stood the legions and the forces of revolution. Octavianus crosse

ow apparent the generals themselves were helpless in the hands of the legions . The proletariat of Italy, long exploited and thw

irst to provide money for the war, the second to reward the Caesarian legions after victory. War and the threat of taxation o

the standing army of the Caesarians, which numbered some forty-three legions . So much for present needs. For the future, to re

legions. So much for present needs. For the future, to recompense the legions which were to be led against the Republicans, the

refuge, with Brutus and Cassius a party and a cause, armies of Roman legions and the hope of vengeance. NotesPage=>197

ce was not an indispensable qualification for leading armies of Roman legions . But Salvidienus was not unique: foreigners or fr

ILS 6267). Also Herod the Idumaean, in temporary charge of two Roman legions sent to him by Ventidius under the command of an

armies made ready for war. The leaders decided to employ twenty-eight legions . Eight of these they dispatched in advance across

onius, for one of his partisans, Calenus, seems to have commanded two legions established in Italy,3 while Pollio held the Cisa

In the late summer of 42 their armies passed the Hellespont, nineteen legions and numerous levies from the dependent princes of

nd men knew and respected the tried merit of Cassius. The best of the legions , it is true, were Caesarian veterans. Yet the sol

That was the only weak spot in the forces of the Republic: would the legions stand against the name and fortune of Caesar? Fro

the winter months, the lack of supplies would disperse the Caesarian legions over the desolate uplands of Macedonia or pen the

d and destroyed the fleet of Domitius Calvinus, who was conveying two legions to Dyrrhachium. 3 It was not the ghost of Caesar

settlement of the veterans of Philippi, the remnants of twenty-eight legions . Of the acts and policy of the dynasts, the share

recalled his marshal Salvidienus, who was marching to Spain with six legions to take charge of that region. Even if Salvidienu

overwhelmed by the Antonian generals, strong in prestige and mass of legions . But the Antonians were separated by distance a

ed in counsel. In Gallia Cisalpina stood Pollio with an army of seven legions . The decision to abolish this province and unite

Alps, was held for him by Calenus and Ventidius with a huge force of legions : they, too, had opposed Salvidienus. 2 But that

xperience or confidence, was induced to surrender all Gaul and eleven legions . 5 Octavianus left Italy to take over this welcom

Italy could scarcely be doubted; and, despite the loss of the Gallic legions , the odds of war were on the side of the great An

rt himself as the true Caesarian by standing for the interests of the legions . But his errors were not fatal Octavianus had gre

inst Antonius; some turned back. 4 Octavianus might command a mass of legions : they were famished and unreliable, and he had no

hould have known how the odds lay. Once again, however, the Caesarian legions bent the Caesarian leaders to their will and save

influence and did not resign ambition, but lacked a party and devoted legions . His style of politics was passing out of date. A

man arms Antonius kept a large garrison in the Balkans, perhaps seven legions . 2 The western frontier of his dominions was the

nd for security, against the Parthians. After Samosata, Antonius left legions in the north; and in 37 B.C. his marshal Canidius

s admirals, while freed slaves manned his ships and filled his motley legions . Pompeius might sweep the seas, glorying in the

surrendered the island of Sardinia, a war-fleet and an army of three legions . Octavianus or his admirals L. Cornificius and C.

pidus invaded Sicily from the south with the army of Africa, fourteen legions strong. Operations began on July 1st. The fight

me of his father in the eastern lands, raised a private army of three legions in Asia, with which force he contended for a time

himself. Plinius Rufus, a lieutenant of Pompeius, pent up with eight legions in Messana, offered to surrender. Lepidus, overri

tion in his own person. Octavianus objected: Lepidus, with twenty-two legions at his back, ordered Octavianus to depart from Si

ἱσχυρότϵρος αὐτο ὤν, χϵιν. PageBook=>233 now stood some forty legions diverse in history and origin but united by their

, no word or hint of this eminent consular until his attempt to bring legions across the Ionian Sea for the campaign of Philipp

k from the East, should Antonius demand lands for the veterans of his legions , should the dynasts, fulfilling a solemn pledge,

orm of a dislike of freedmen and foreigners. Aliens had served in the legions of the Roman People; and the dynasts were lavish

eyond Armenia towards the Caucasus, and Canidius was waiting with his legions . In the neighbourhood of Erzerum the great army m

ons. In the neighbourhood of Erzerum the great army mustered, sixteen legions , ten thousand Gallic and Spanish cavalry and the

Balkan army, has not been recorded. From their base in Armenia the legions began their long march to Phraaspa, the capital c

ia by planting garrisons over the land perhaps he did not have enough legions . Thus Artavasdes, given impunity, could desert wi

ry and mobility, attacked the Roman communications, cut to pieces two legions under Oppius Statianus and destroyed much of Anto

n by privations and harried on their slow march by the Parthians, the legions struggled back to Armenia, saved only by the cour

esPage=>265 1 Velleius 2, 82, 3. Livy, Per. 130, is moderate two legions cut to pieces, further eight thousand men lost on

Canidius to bring the army down to the sea-coast of Asia. 2 There the legions passed the winter of 33-32 B.C. In the year 33

from oppression and looking forward to a new era of prosperity, with legions , cavalry, ships and treasure at his command, Anto

pened by personal enmities and rivalries. In a civil war fleets and legions are not the most important things. Under what nam

s 58. PageBook=>284 was compelled to secure the loyalty of his legions by paying a donative. In desperate straits for mo

erty and dishonour. National pride revolted. Was it for this that the legions of the imperial Republic had shattered and swept

The land army under the command of Canidius comprised nineteen of his legions : the other eleven made up the garrison of Egypt,

In ships Antonius had the preponderance of strength; as for number of legions it was doubtful whether the enemy could transport

been over-estimated. PageBook=>295 augmented the total of his legions to thirty. The new recruits were inferior to Ital

ed in Epirus was composed in the main of the survivors of his veteran legions . 1 But would Roman soldiers fight for the Queen o

he Queen of Egypt? They had all the old personal loyalty of Caesarian legions to a general of Caesar’s dash and vigour; but the

st. Yet, in the last resort, Antonius might not need to appeal to the legions to stand in battle against their kinsmen. He migh

ncial levies were heavily drawn upon. Brutus, for example, raised two legions of Macedonians (Appian, BC 3, 79, 324). As for Án

aders, Roman senators or eastern princes, spread to the ships and the legions . Canidius was now in favour of a retreat to Maced

fter Agrippa, and the renegade Titius were in charge of the Caesarian legions . The course, character and duration of the batt

donia, but in vain. He had to escape to Antonius. After some days the legions capitulated, an interval perhaps spent in bargain

ugitives to Egypt. Octavianus had a huge army on his hands, with many legions to be paid, demobilized or employed. He sent Agri

d their demands. 3 Warfare would provide occupation for some of his legions . Though no serious outbreak had disturbed the pro

Scarpus, Antonius’ lieutenant in the Cyrenaica, surrendered his four legions and passed into the service of the victor. 4 Anto

and suffered a double detraction. They said that he had deserted the legions after Actium, that he died without fortitude. 2 A

the East, not so important because they lacked permanent garrisons of legions , were in the hands of reliable partisans. 3 In

saries found himself in the embarrassing possession of nearly seventy legions . For the military needs of the empire, fewer than

rs to have decided upon a permanent establishment of about twenty-six legions . The remainder were disbanded, the veterans being

es in their charge, about which due foresight would be exercised— few legions for garrison, proconsuls of new families rather t

ful of the military territories of the Empire and the majority of the legions ; and Egypt stood apart from the reckoning. But

t stood apart from the reckoning. But Augustus did not take all the legions : three proconsuls had armies under their command,

. A citizen and a magistrate to the senators, he was imperator to the legions , a king and a god to the subject populations. Abo

erned Africa and Spain, he had thrice been acclaimed imperator by the legions . 1 A second consulate was not the only reward of

ld Gaul, Cisalpine and Transalpine, Spain and Syria, with some twenty legions . The Cisalpina was no longer a province. Apart fr

and Cilicia Campestris); 1 their garrison was a great army of twenty legions or more. In recent years these provinces had been

and three only, so far as known, hold the proconsulate of Africa with legions and the nominal hope of a triumph. 3 The wars of

, but their garrison was kept small in size, perhaps some five or six legions in all. Reasons of internal politics thus helped

that sons of equestrian families from the towns of Italy entered the legions for adventure, for employment and for the profits

its of the centurionate. But the positions of military tribune in the legions and of cavalry commander (praefectus equitum) wer

questrian praefecti. Not merely in charge of detachments or of single legions Salvidienus Rufus and Cornelius Gallus led whole

pt, a land forbidden to senators, Roman knights commanded each of the legions in garrison. 4 Nor was the practice always confin

remained there as the first Prefect of the land, at the head of three legions . Certain other provinces subsequently acquired by

2 None of these provinces was comparable to Egypt or contained Roman legions ; but the Prefect of Egypt found peer and parallel

as the reward of valour; and many men from the provinces entered the legions of the Roman People, whether they already possess

nce, perhaps already in the time of Augustus, of the recruits for the legions of the West, these lands gradually invade and cap

was solemnly dedicated. 3 Peace called for new and greater wars. The legions were rejuvenated and disciplined, for by now the

t the existence of a standing army and consecrated the removal of the legions from the field of politics. Never again was provi

until 9 B.C. PageBook=>390 The army now numbered twenty-eight legions . Of these, fourteen or fifteen were now available

m. 6 NotesPage=>390 1 Cf. JRS XXIII (1933), 19 ff. A number of legions recently withdrawn from Spain reinforced the armi

nians and Dalmatians (12-9 B.C.). 4 In the same years Drusus with the legions of the Rhine and the levies of Gaul invaded Ger

colonies in this region served military purposes of defence. Further, legions were required to reduce the brigand tribes of the

ricum, as long as it was senatorial, and Macedonia, while it retained legions , can furnish examples of consular proconsuls. T

cification of the Balkans (c. 9 B.C.,) or some dozen years later, the legions of Macedonia were removed from the proconsul and

the northern frontier of the Empire, embracing no fewer than fifteen legions . The contrast with the three provinces of 27 B.C.

us in 6 B.C.1 Before long, however, that important command, with five legions , was held by Ahenobarbus and by Vinicius in immed

d along with power, the descendant of kings who had led to battle the legions of Etruria surrendered to self-pity and the horro

pplant the patron and champion of the Roman People, the master of the legions , the king of kings. For all that, they might flou

o Gaul, Tiberius with him. Tiberius inherited Lollius’ command of the legions of Gaul and the glory of the Alpine War. Like P.

berius for three years (A.D. 6-9). Then Germany rose. Varus and three legions perished. Rome did not see her new master for man

inhuman composure the despairing complaint against Varus for the lost legions . 1 In A.D. 13 the succession was publicly regulat

in this year was governor of Hispania Citerior, at the head of three legions . 1 Tiberius could trust Lepidus not Gallus, howev

s were in the hands of sure partisans. On the Rhine were massed eight legions under two legates, the one C. Silius A. Caecina L

;450 The last generation saw the Marsian and the Picene leading the legions of Rome to battle against the Parthians; and the

orification of the martial ideals of an imperial race, service in the legions was unpopular in Italy, the levy detested,3 Pag

cently conquered valleys of the Alps were pressed into service in the legions of the Roman People. 1 On no interpretation could

stock. That was what was wanted. Nor indeed was recruiting for the legions confined to Italy. The practices of the revolutio

had raised a legion in Narbonensis; Spain had already supplied whole legions as well as recruits. If there were more evidence

ell as recruits. If there were more evidence available concerning the legions of the West in the Principate of Augustus, it may

ere was danger of mutiny (Dio 56, 12, 2). PageBook=>458 No new legions could be raised. As a partial remedy for the lack

e. But for that disaster he could have borne the loss of Varus’ three legions with more composure. Despite the varied checks

The epithet was rhetorical, not religious: he also applied it to the legions that had deserted the consul Antonius, ‘heavenly

on Rome. Army and provinces stood firm for the established order. The legions were inspired with a fanatical yet rational devot

and could see no prospect of a successful war for liberty against the legions and colonies of Rome. In origin, the Roman colony

ositions and capable of supplying troops to replace or supplement the legions : the colonist remembered with pride his ties with

re long the nobiles disappear from the great military commands. Eight legions on the Rhine, brigaded in two armies, are in them

rupt decline in the social distinction of the commanders of the Rhine legions . Under Caligula, after Lentulus Gaetulicus, who c

apacious and incompetent, bears in those epithets the blame for three legions lost not all his own fault. 2 The most eminent of

ntigerunt’. 1 No longer was the proletariat of Italy pressed into the legions to shed its blood for ambitious generals or spuri

uarrel not their own or mulcted of their lands for the benefit of the legions . That was over. The Republic was something that a

coris, mistress of Gallus, 252. Macedonia, in 44 B.C., 107, 110 f.; legions of, 110, 126; seized by Brutus, 171; in the Trium

f., 367, 455 f., 501 ff.; in the equestrian service, 367, 506; in the legions , 295, 457; wealth of, 490, 501 f.; virtues of, 45