cipal allies of the various political leaders enter into their own at last . The method has to be selective: exhaustive detai

register, still less to utilize, the writings and discoveries of the last twelve years, much as I should have liked to inse

era may be variously computed, from the winning of sole power by the last of the dynasts through the War of Actium, from th

itical activity when he raised up Caesar’s heir against Antonius. The last year of Cicero’s life, full of glory and eloquenc

aesar he went through the wars from the passage of the Rubicon to the last battle in Spain. Then he followed Antonius for fi

he political dynasts of the closing age of the Republic and for their last sole heir the rule of Augustus was the rule of a

hough destiny ordained the succession of military tyrants. In these last and fatal convulsions, disaster came upon disaste

nct minority in the Senate. The nobiles are predominant: yet in the last generation of the Free State, after the ordinance

of law, or masked by secret intrigue. As in its beginning, so in its last generation, the Roman Commonwealth, ‘res publica

up the tribune Ti. Sempronius Gracchus. The Metelli backed Sulla. The last dynastic NotesPage=>012 1 Compare Münzer’s

han in the lower. It is all too easy to tax the Roman nobility in the last epoch of its rule with vice and corruption, obscu

ontiers of its wide and cumbersome dominion against Sertorius and the last survivors of the Marian faction in Spain, against

2 Cf. Münzer, RA 305 ff. The patriciate was in very low water in the last decade of the second century B.C. 3 Ever since

ical lady Servilia and the redoubtable leader of the oligarchy in its last struggles, M. Porcius Cato. 1 With these three

, the all-pervading auctoritas of a senior statesman. Augustus, the last of the dynasts, took direct charge of the greater

government and hastening its end. Ahenobarbus had become consul at last , with Ap. Claudius Pulcher for colleague (54 B.C.

to the elder son of the dynast Crassus. Further, a Scipio, almost the last of his line, himself the grandson of a Metella, h

y, they emerge again into sudden prominence with three consuls in the last three years of the Free State. 4 The influence of

consul and the tribunes of Pompeius. It was later claimed by their last survivor that the party of the Republic and camp

1, 118. PageBook=>045 consular rank. 1 With the consuls of the last year of the Republic conveniently added, the arra

ouse. 4 It was the oligarchy of Sulla, manifest and menacing in its last bid for power, serried but insecure. Pompeius was

e loss of his ally and of popular support, would be in their power at last , amenable to guidance or to be discarded if recal

id of that and so was Pompeius. After long wavering Pompeius chose at last to save the oligarchy. Further, the proconsul’s p

sserted both legal and moral rights to preferential treatment. In the last resort his rank, prestige and honour, summed up i

ivus Iulius 30, 3 (mentioning Cato and Milo). PageBook=>049 At last the enemies of Caesar had succeeded in ensnaring

ictory. But three years more of fighting were needed to stamp out the last and bitter resistance of the Pompeian cause in Af

ot be debarred from playing round the high and momentous theme of the last designs of Caesar the Dictator. It has been suppo

l War and reinvigorate the organs of the Roman State. It was going to last and the Roman aristocracy was not to be permitted

t first tore it in pieces again, but ultimately, after conquering the last of his rivals, converted the old Caesarian party

the consul who had placed a sword in the hand of Pompeius, mindful at last of a marriage-connexion with the family of Caesar

for Catullus’ attacks upon Caesar, Vatinius, Mamurra and Labienus the last may be the ‘Mentula’ of certain poems; cf. T. Fra

his ascension revived the party of Marius and the battle-cries of the last civil war, only thirty years before. The memory o

, Balbus gradually edged towards the more powerful attraction. In the last decade of the Republic there can have been few in

dim figures, the bearers of obscure names, the first and perhaps the last senators of their respective families. 3 Above

rate peoples of the Bellum Italicum now taste revenge and requital at last . The Paeligni have to wait a generation yet, it i

confined to Rome, but must embrace all Italy. That Italy should at last enter the government of the enlarged state is a f

ourable and patriotic citizens, the acta of the Dictator and even his last projects, as yet unpublished were to have the for

2, 28 3 Suetonius, Divus Iulius 19, 1. PageBook=>101 in the last months of Caesar’s life, artfully fomented by his

his predominance, stole his partisans, and contrived against him the last coup d’état of all, the national front and the un

ential adversaries. Antonius had been no friend of Dolabella in the last three years: yet he condoned and recognized Dolab

a time to the scramble for honours and emolument, to break out at the last into civil war again. Deplored by the Liberators,

PageBook=>116 as well as extreme Republicans. They knew what the last extended command in Gaul had meant. Two other m

name and at the expense of Brutus, the urban praetor, on July 7th. At last his chance arrived. Certain friends of Caesar sup

utus left Italy towards the end of the month, not before publishing a last edict. He affirmed the loyalty of the Liberators

ressure from a competitor was now beginning to force him to choose at last between the Senate and the veterans. The Senate w

hostile: yet the uneasy reconciliation with Octavianus could scarcely last . On any count, the outlook was black for the frie

nt party. For lack of that, the great Pompeius had been forced at the last into a fatal alliance with his enemies the oligar

(BG 2, 2, 1, &c.) and proconsul in Hispania Citerior, after which last command he triumphed at the end of 45 B.C. (CIL 1

sti virum quam tectus. ’ 5 As cos. stiff, at the end of 40 B.C. The last mention of him, Ad Att. 16, 11, 8 (Nov. 5th). 6

, Mάρκος Mοδιάλιος καὶ Λ∈ύκιος. Jacoby conjectures a lacuna after the last name, If Nicolaus is correct and correctly transm

here not Maecenas but his father (so Münzer, P-W xiv, 206). About the last three names few attempts at identification have b

sar, the agent of his misfortunes, rather than Pompeius with whom the last word rested. Pompeius was the stronger from the e

were unhappy and inglorious. The continuance of the struggle with the last remnants of the Pompeians and the sometimes hoped

e Caesarian faction in the person of Antonius appeared unshakable. At last , after long doubt and hesitation, Cicero set out

turned back. Near Velia on August 17th he met Brutus, occupied in the last preparations for leaving Italy. L. Piso, he learn

cy of Antonius, Cicero, it might be argued, came out into the open at last , and made history by a resolute defence of the Re

was therefore launched earlier than had been expected. Now came the last and heroic hour, in the long and varied public li

cord and ordered government might still have been achieved. Now, at last , a chance had come to redeem all, to assert leade

to make history. Duty and glory inspired the veteran statesman in his last and courageous battle for what he believed to be

y oratory, invective and lampoon. Crime, vice and corruption in the last age of the Republic are embodied in types as perf

of the trouble lay a century back, after the fall of Carthage, Rome’s last rival for world-empire. Since then a few ambitiou

revolutionary wars. Pietas was the battle-cry of the Pompeians in the last battle in Spain:2 and the younger son of Pompeius

This dearth explains the prominence, if not the primacy, that now at last fell to Cicero in his old age, after twenty years

n remained, but few of note in word or deed, for good or evil, in the last effort of the Senate. Only three, so Cicero, writ

of his own near relatives. 3 When all was ready, and the decision at last taken, he moved with rapidity. The quaestors of A

Rome the exultation was unbounded. Antonius and his followers were at last declared public enemies. For the victorious champ

olve the forces of his adversaries. On July 28th Plancus composed his last NotesPage=>165 1 Appian, BC 3, 83, 341 ff.

te in 41 B.C., Phil. 8, 27, cf. Dio 46, 30, 4; 35, 3. 8 Compare the last edict of the Liberators (Velleius 2, 62, 3): ‘lib

n Italy and Caesar’s heir marching on Rome will have convinced him at last that there was no room left for scruple or for le

ctavianus; among them, but not in the forefront, was Cicero. ‘Ah, the last of my friends’, the young man observed. 1 But e

and Lepidus for Lepidus, too, had been declared a public enemy. The last six months of the consulate of Antonius shattered

were companions in adversity. The beneficiaries of Sulla suffered at last . The Triumvirs declared a regular vendetta agains

augurate an epoch, as clearly manifest in its consuls as had been the last and transient supremacy of the oligarchy: strange

despondent, warned by the ghost of Caesar. On the contrary, Brutus at last was calm and decided. After the triumph of the Ca

way through the marsh to the south around the flank of Cassius, he at last forced on a battle. Octavianus had now come up th

, eastern princes and their levies were deserting. Brutus gave way at last . After a tenacious and bloody contest, the Caes

stum populi’. 4 This time the decision was final and irrevocable, the last struggle of the Free State. Henceforth nothing bu

of Italy. Denied justice and liberty, Italy rose against Rome for the last time. It was not the fierce peoples of the Apenni

erversity, to redeem her memory. (For a temperate view of Fulvia, the last survivor of a great political family, cf. Münze

in; 1 and now he might bar the return of Octavianus’ best marshal and last hope. The Triumvir’s own province, all Gaul beyon

extius, the former governor, who had remained in the province, was at last overcome and killed. 3 Caesar’s heir would soon b

come and killed. 3 Caesar’s heir would soon be trapped and crushed at last . That way all odds pointed and most men’s hopes.

C 5, 26, 103. 3 Ib. 5, 26, 102; Dio 48, 22, 1 ff. T. Sextius had at last suppressed Q. Cornificius and won Africa for the

equately informed, may still have preferred to wait upon events. 5 At last he moved. The Parthian menace was upon him, but

y plausibly argued by B. Snell, Hermes LXXIII (1938), 237 ff. 2 The last Ludi Saeculares at Rome had been celebrated in 14

binding and personal of pledges, offered a secure hope of concord at last . The reconciled leaders, escorted by some of th

patience of Antonius and the diplomacy of Maecenas were exhausted. At last the mediation of Octavia was invoked to secure an

uccess as a general. The Pact of Puteoli brought Italy a respite at last from raids and famine, and to Octavianus an accid

r feuds. NotesPage=>228 1 Appian (BC 5, 139, 579) names as his last companions in Asia (35 B.C.) Cassius of Parma, Na

s cause and made peace with Antonius, some entering his service. 1 At last Titius captured Pompeius and put him to death, ei

is Republican following, already considerable, was augmented when the last adherents of Sex. Pompeius passed into his servic

that was imminent but for the peace that was to follow victory in the last of all the civil wars. NotesPage=>242 1 Di

houses of praetorian rank). PageBook=>244 perished during the last twenty years, others, especially the Pompeians an

scovering, as he said, that it was time to gather his baggage for the last journey,3 he proceeded to compose a monumental wo

rges of highway robbery outstanding against certain senators could at last be annulled. 3 The Caesarian soldiers were tumu

tor of Philippi should have driven the Parthians out of Asia. When at last his hands were free he departed to Syria, summoni

nius’ enemies. Another realm reposed in the gift of Rome Egypt, the last of the kingdoms of Alexander’s successors, the mo

11, 522). Cf. also IG XII, 9, 916 (Chalcis). PageBook=>269 The last adherents of Sex. Pompeius deserted to Antonius.

1; for Cassius of Parma, see Appian, 1. c, and Velleius 2, 87, 3 (the last of the assassins). Cassius is also a figure in li

ments and public manifestoes, of which there had been a dearth in the last few years. Lampoon and abuse had likewise been si

Triumvirate. Since the time when the entry into office of new consuls last portended a change in politics a whole age seemed

But the Antonian party was already disintegrating. Loyalty would not last for ever in the face of evidence like the defecti

evidence that Octavianus so urgently required. They told him that the last will and testament of Antonius reposed in the cus

o the solemn pledge given by the Senate to Caesar the Dictator in the last month of his life, or the oath taken at Tibur to

change or lapse. By whatever name known or public title honoured, the last of the monarchic faction-leaders based his rule o

d) and ILS 190 (Aritium, in the province of Lusitania). A part of the last of these may be quoted for illustration: ‘ex mei

man could believe any more. Yet if the coming struggle eliminated the last of the rival dynasts and there by consummated the

consummated the logical end of the factions, compacts and wars of the last thirty years, though liberty perished, peace migh

ome and the leadership of Caesar, united in patriotic resolve for the last war of all. Hinc Augustus agens Italos in proli

rvour that had been administered to the army of the West. Yet, in the last resort, Antonius might not need to appeal to the

owed him in death, true to noble and patrician tradition. She was the last person of note in a family that claimed descent f

ntonius and his consort spent nearly a year after the disaster in the last revels, the last illusory plans and the last desp

onsort spent nearly a year after the disaster in the last revels, the last illusory plans and the last despondency before de

fter the disaster in the last revels, the last illusory plans and the last despondency before death. After brief resistance

, veiled intimidation and the pride of Cleopatra found a way out. The last of the Ptolemies scorned to be led in a Roman tri

us Florus and his son were also killed. PageBook=>300 them the last of the assassins of the Dictator, D. Turullius an

t began with C. Trebo-nius, the proconsul of Asia. 1 P. Canidius, the last of Antonius’ marshals, also perished. Loyal to An

assus and the national honour clamoured for a war of revenge; and the last of the dynasts might desire to outshine all the g

the great generals of the Republic; and the victor of Actium was the last and the greatest of them all. It could also fit a

, ‘dux’, however, at least twice. 1 As late as the publication of the last book of the Odes (13 B.C.) the ruler of Rome can

ere blotted from record. 3 This meant a certain rehabilitation of the last generation of the Republic, which in politics is

xperience—it was not long ago—the political activity of Cicero in the last year of his life. The smooth Plancus no doubt acq

nd tremendous resources, open or secret—all that the principes in the last generation held, but now stolen from them and enh

reconstruct the true history of a year that might well have been the last , and was certainly the most critical, in all the

nto a dangerous illness. Close to death, he gave no indication of his last intentions he merely handed over certain state pa

had been averted but narrowly, peace and order restored but would it last ? And, more than security of person and property,

tion of nobiles was growing up, the sons of men who had fallen in the last struggle of the Republic, or the descendants of f

was disquieting. However, when Augustus in prospect of death made his last dispositions, yielding powers of discretion to Ag

ole social, military and political structure of the New State. In the last generation of the Republic the financiers had all

terculus, of Campanian and Samnite stock, after equestrian service at last became quaestor. 1 Contemporary and parallel are

t Rome. They were the first senators of their families, sometimes the last , with no prospect of the consulate but safe votes

and a Caecina, unmistakable in their non-Latin termination. 5 In the last years, however (A.D. 4-14), a significant phenome

ndour and power to hold the proconsulate of Africa and a triumph, the last ever celebrated by a senator. Moreover, Junius Ga

s. The dynasts had destroyed the Republic and themselves, down to the last survivor, Caesar’s heir. Engrossing all their pow

ti in the middle years of his Principate recall the splendour of that last effulgence before the war of Pompeius and Caesar.

seven military commands which the developed system could show in the last years of the Princeps’ life. Not until 5 B.C. do

ius and elsewhere. But L. Tarius Rufus, an admiral at Actium, rose at last to the consulate after a command in the Balkans.

al, not to say traditional primacy, was menaced and precarious in the last century of the Free State, now stand foremost amo

t until a century elapsed after the Battle of Actium, until Nero, the last of the line of Augustus, had perished and Galba a

B.C., to find Augustus newly returned from Spain and Gaul. During the last fourteen years, they had seldom been together in

e year promulgated regulations of pay and service which recognized at last the existence of a standing army and consecrated

nicius was proconsul of Illyricum in 14 and in 13 B.C. presumably the last proconsul of that province. PageBook=>391

have been as small as the single legion that remained there from the last years of Augustus onwards; 1 and although no proc

sia. 3 When both Illyricum and the Rhine army had been divided in the last years of the Principate, there existed seven mili

is here assumed, though it cannot be proved, that M. Vinicius was the last proconsul, Tiberius the first imperial legate, of

irco ac theatris sueta’ (Tacitus, Hist, 1, 4). 6 e.g., ILS 120. The last was Q. Junius Blaesus in A.D. 23 (Tacitus, Ann. 3

eat Pompeius. Of all that, nothing more. Domitius and Titius were the last commoners to give their names to cities, and that

this practice and gain a monopoly of loyalty for the government. The last proconsul with a priest consecrated to his worshi

priest consecrated to his worship was L. Munatius Plancus; 3 and the last to give his name to commemorative games was Paull

o have persisted throughout his reign, being especially useful in the last years, when the Princeps seldom cared to enter th

as Maecenas, Horace died: Virgil had gone eleven years before. In the last period of Augustus’ rule, literature not merely l

bsence, at his expense and at the expense of the Roman People. In the last six years, Tiberius had hardly been seen in Rome;

d been to the service of the State, the nobiles now enjoy a brief and last renascence in the strange but not incongruous all

married T. Statilius Taurus, cos. A.D. 11 (P-W 111 A, 2204). 2 The last consul was in 16 B.C. The consul of A.D. 2 is pro

an interval, and four more (3 B.C., 1 B.C., A.D. 2, A.D. 10). 4 The last consular Marcellus is Aeserninus (22 B.C.), a per

persons, cf. E. Groag, Wiener Studien XLI (1919), 86. Presumably the last of the Scipiones and the last of the Claudii Pulc

Studien XLI (1919), 86. Presumably the last of the Scipiones and the last of the Claudii Pulchri. 6 Cf. Tacitus, Ann. 3,

ndson of Octavia. Further, the Princeps adopted Agrippa Postumus, the last surviving son of Agrippa and Julia. Of the true

by urgent messages from his mother. He arrived in time to receive the last mandates from the lips of the dying Princeps so r

mained. On April 3rd of the previous year Augustus had drawn up his last will and testament. 4 About the same time, it may

ed and phrase recur at the beginning of Nero’s reign. 3 From first to last the dynasty of the Julii and the Claudii ran true

ell-ordered state has no need of great men, and no room for them. The last century of the Free State witnessed a succession

so long as Rome remained her ancient self. In the aristocracy of the last age of the Republic marriage had not always been

e, from one generation of corruption to the next, each worse than the last , till the temples should be repaired. 1 Whose han

ubt with exaggeration,5 passing over the considerable activity of the last decade. PageNotes. 447 1 Odes 3, 6, 1 ff. 2

. In 29 B.C. the Temple of Divus Julius vowed by the Triumvirs was at last dedicated. The next year saw the completion of th

6 The fiercest of the Italici had recently fought against Rome in the last struggle of the peoples of the Apennine above all

ius 3, 22, 21 f. 6 Horace, Odes 3, 6, 5 f. PageBook=>450 The last generation saw the Marsian and the Picene leading

for the better sort of contemporary literature. As in politics, the last generation was not rich in models to commend or i

rsonal domination, but the unity of Rome and Italy, reconciliation at last . That was his mission: nec mihi regna peto: par

The poet himself, who had married three times, was not unhappy in his last choice, a virtuous and excellent woman. 1 That

hibited in the voting-booths of the Roman People. 7 When Lepidus at last died in 12 B.C., Augustus assumed the dignity of

lection to the People, in pointed contrast to Antonius’ action on the last occasion there flocked to Rome from the towns of

ing of young Curio; and the very denial of Canidius’ constancy in the last emergency, if believed, would reveal one man at l

d his ground and carried his point Lepidus was included, but enrolled last on the list of the consulars. 5 Labeo, it is also

passages, explaining that they would be read after his death. 4 The last years of Augustus witnessed stern measures of rep

mbers of the dynasty or partisans of the government to retribution at last : curramus praecipites et, dum iacet in ripa,

al and by Tacitus, the typical glories of imperial literature and the last of the Romans. PageNotes. 489 1 Velleius 2, 3

ower when, with the Scipionic connexion, they supported Pompeius. The last in the direct line of the Metelli, an ex-Antonian

of the Metelli, an ex-Antonian, did not reach the consulate; and the last consular bearer of the name was a Junius Silanus

Silanus by birth. Likewise to the Principate of Augustus belongs the last consul of the ancient patrician house of the Scip

Octavia. Of the family of Brutus, his sister, Cassius’ wife, was the last . She died at the age of ninety-three. At her fune

rist, endured down to Nero. 3 Certain noble families, showing their last consuls in the age of Pompeius, became extinct in

Roman and aristocratic pride the families that waned and died in the last generation of the Free State or were abruptly ext

ir name or their ambition that ruined them. Two young patricians, the last Scipio and the last Appius Claudius Pulcher, were

ition that ruined them. Two young patricians, the last Scipio and the last Appius Claudius Pulcher, were put to death for of

onius, the alleged paramour of Julia, had been executed: his son, the last of the Antonii, lived on in the obscurity of a pr

sband of the younger Julia. They were destined never to grasp it. The last of them, married to a sister of Caligula and desi

same for the Domitii: prominent among the Liberators and himself the last admiral of the Republic, Cn. Domitius stood next

n blood in their veins, Nero from both sides of his family. Nero, the last emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, was also t

y. Nero, the last emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, was also the last of the Domitii Ahenobarbi, eight consuls before h

ght consuls before him in eight generations. 1 But Nero was not the last survivor of the blood of Augustus. The Junii Sila

down to Junia Calvina, ‘festivissima puella’, who survived until the last year of the Emperor Vespasian. 2 PageNotes. 495

nfant Republic. Other names, of recent and ruinous notoriety in the last generation of the Free State, Sulla, Cinna, Crass

, namely Censorinus (cos. 8 B.C.), seems to have left male issue. The last consular Marcellus was consul in 22 B.C. 2 ILS

Persicus, cos. A.D. 34, son of the consul of 11 B.C. Persicus was the last consul: On á possible son, Cf. E. Groag, P-W VI,

rius Messalla Corvinus, cos. A.D. 58 (cf. Juvenal 1, 107 f.), was the last consular Valerius. For the stemma of Messallina,

), reinforcing an earlier link between their families (ILS 8996). The last consular Lentuli were P. Scipio and P. Scipio Asi

ilus the Samnite and the two Vibii from Larinum are the first and the last consuls of their families. Papius and his colleag

s; one of them perished with Messallina, his imperial paramour. 3 The last consulars of the names Statilius Taurus, Sentius

a new consular stock of the time of Augustus, the Aelii Lamiae. 7 The last Lamia was consul in 116, by which time that name

of native dynasts who received the citizenship from proconsuls of the last century of the Republic and from Caesar the Dicta

escaped his doom had he been content with ‘aurea mediocritas’. 2 The last and only refuge of Roman virtue and aristocratic

anicus. At all turns the nobiles were imperilled above all and in the last resort by the fears of Tiberius and by his reluct

PageBook=>511 Augustus set especial store by the patriciate. The last renascence of the oldest nobility of Rome reveale

llus married Vipsania, his daughter the son of a nobleman, almost the last of the Marcelli. 6 He should have had nothing to

if not dead long before that. Pollio knew the bitter truth about the last generation of the Free State. The historian Tacit

l, c. VII, init. PageBook=>514 They could be safe and happy at last . As a survivor of the proscriptions stated, ‘paca

utrality had seldom been possible in the political dissensions of the last age of the Republic. Few were the nobiles who pas

e State could in truth be called the Commonwealth, ‘res publica’. The last of the dynasts prevailed in violence and bloodshe

Ann. 1, 9. 2 Suetonius, Divus Aug. 28, 2. PageBook=>522 The last decade of Augustus’ life was clouded by domestic

ae in their final form were composed early in A.D. 13, along with the last will and testament, to be edited and published by

493, 494, 495. Antoninus Pius, 502. Antonius, son of lullus, the last of his line, 494. Antonius, C, (cos. 63 B.C.), 62

B.C., 419 ff.; disgrace of Julia, 426 f.; adoption of Tiberius, 431; last years, 431 ff.; last acts, 433, 438 f.; death and

ace of Julia, 426 f.; adoption of Tiberius, 431; last years, 431 ff.; last acts, 433, 438 f.; death and deification, 438 f.,

ations, 374 ff.; elections, 370 f. Consuls, after Sulla, 22; in the last years of the Republic, 94; under Caesar’s Dictato

ulate, 229; proconsul of Spain, 239; repairs temple of Hercules, 241; last consul of his line, 496. Marcius Rex, Q. (cos.

hodorus, of Tralles, 262. Quies, 14, 504, 517. Quinctilius Varus, last of his family, 496. Quinctilius Varus, P. (cos.

rica, 328, 339; his family and relatives, 269. Sempronius Gracchus, last of the Gracchi, 493. Sempronius Gracchus, C. (tr.

gi (cos. A.D. 27) is assumed to be the son of L. Piso, adopted by the last of the Licinii Crassi, the consul of 14 B.C. The