ransformed a faction into a national party, and a torn and distracted land into a nation, with a stable and enduring governm

his services by loans or legacies. 3 The gains of finance went into land . Men of substance and repute grew yet richer from

provinces, bought the farms of small peasants, encroached upon public land , seized through mortgages the ancestral property

f. 51. Compare also Cicero’s whole argument in the speech against the land bill of Rullus. 3 Both actions and motive of Cr

n his name. From Thrace to the Caucasus and down to Egypt the eastern lands acknowledged his predominance. The worship of pow

of the class and rank of M. Terentius Varro from Reate, in the Sabine land . 3 The bulk of Pompeius’ personal adherents in

ith Pompeius both in the Sertorian War and in the East, on sea and on land , cf. C. Cichorius, R. Studien, 189 ff. 4 Pseudo

r (Ad Att. 2, 1, 8). PageBook=>034 an ambitious bill providing lands for the veterans of Pompeius. Celer opposed it. M

They might have known better Cato’s stubborn refusal to agree to the land bill for Pompeius’ veterans only led to worse evi

ity of the Senate and the liberties of the Roman People, that all the land would rise as one man against the invader. Nothin

which was not their own. 2 Pompeius might stamp with his foot in the land of Italy, as he had rashly boasted. No armed legi

the right to sell, grant or divide up the estates of his adversaries. Land was seized for his veteran colonies, in Italy and

splanted to Rome: hence the Julii and the Servilii. Out of the Sabine land came Attus Clausus with the army of his clients a

fore Caesar’s invasion, the allies of Rome from Asculum in the Picene land through the Marsi and Paeligni down to Samnium an

onal, local and regional. A hundred thousand veterans, settled on the lands of Sulla’s enemies, supported his domination, pro

t and Roman politician, or the Roman faction in a torn and discordant land . Pompeius’ son inherited: he secured senatorial

came from Perusia,5 but was a senator already. The Sabine country, a land of hardy democrats, perpetuated the memory of Ser

Pompaedius’), cf. W. Schulze, LE, 367, and the inscr. from the Marsic land mentioning a Q. Poppaedius (N. d. Scav., 1892, 32

ost of the debatable money must have been expended in the purchase of lands for the veterans, in pursuance of the provisions

sly urging the interests of his friend Atticus in a matter concerning lands in Epirus. 4 On the whole, Antonius was distinctl

llia Comata as well (the region recently conquered by Caesar):1 these lands he would garrison with the Macedonian legions. Fo

es were well aware. Antonius occupied himself with the allotment of lands and the founding of military colonies. He was abs

he towns of Italy. The hazards were palpable, and so were the rewards land , money and power, the estates and prerogatives of

ioneer:5 or stay, worse than that, he had immigrated thither from the land of trousered Gauls beyond the Alps. 6 The exige

De officiis I, 150 f. is instructive: if business men retire and buy land they become quite respectable. 4 Pro C. Rabino

ies of Antonius deserved full recognition, the soldiery recompense in land and money. The claim urged for D. Brutus might

e ambition, intimidation, fraud and bribery were already loose in the land . All Italy must rally for the defence of the ‘leg

nius, Brutus and Cassius had acted: they seized the armies of all the lands beyond the sea, from Illyricum to Egypt. About Ca

is troops, fled northwards, hoping to make his way through the Alpine lands by a wide circuit to Macedonia. He was trapped an

riumvirs it was expedient to drive their political enemies out of the land , thus precluding any armed insurrection in Italy

ut now Rome and Italy had to pay the costs of civil war, in money and land . There was no other source for the Caesarians to

, p. 194. PageBook=>201 for victory or defeat in the eastern lands , became the proverbial trio among the novi homine

sarians were cut: they must advance and hope for a speedy decision on land . Antonius pressed on: the young Caesar, prostrate

d bloody contest, the Caesarian army prevailed. Once again the Balkan lands witnessed a Roman disaster and entombed the armie

aesarian leaders now had to satisfy the demands of their soldiers for land and money. Octavianus was to return to Italy to c

Then other cities in alarm joined the ranks of discontent. Owners of land with their families flocked to Rome, suppliant an

red the town and destroyed it utterly. 4 Nursia, remote in the Sabine land , held out for freedom under Tisienus Gallus, but

s in no way at the end of his difficulties. He was master of Italy, a land of famine, desolation and despair. But Italy was

prised. He could not intervene the confiscations and the allotment of lands to the veterans of Philippi were Octavianus’ shar

en the provinces of Illyricum and Macedonia, formed their frontier by land . To the inferior Lepidus the dynasts resigned pos

argued, bargained, and banqueted on the admiral’s ship, moored by the land . A rope cut, and Pompeius would have the masters

n Asia as far as the coast of Caria in the west, in the south all the lands from Syria down to Jerusalem. Most of the client

valour at Thapsus and Munda; and princes or local dynasts in foreign lands had lapsed by now to the Caesarian party. Sextus’

ade his escape and, trusting to the fame of his father in the eastern lands , raised a private army of three legions in Asia,

e in history and origin but united by their appetite for bounties and lands . Octavianus was generous but firm. 1 The veterans

terans of Mutina and Philippi he now released from service, allotting lands and founding colonies more on provincial than Ita

p.113. PageBook=>234 disturbances, order had been restored by land and sea. 1 The formulation, though not extravagan

to be recommended to D. Brutus (Ad fam. 11, 22). PageBook=>238 land . But Cornificius received or usurped the privileg

icum and the Balkans up to the Danube and the winning of the route by land from northern Italy by way of Belgrade to Salonik

blicans and Pompeians come back from the East, should Antonius demand lands for the veterans of his legions, should the dynas

ain, sieges and destruction of Etruscan cities, the desolation of the land of Italy, massacre for revenge or gain and the es

or Antonius (41-40 B.C.). 4 To Pollio fell the duty of confiscating lands in the north after Philippi; and Pollio is the ea

gned to public use; if not the national antiquities, then perhaps the land and the peasant. Varro’s books on agriculture h

ticians, the sturdy peasant-farmer. Varro, however, had described the land of Italy as no desolation but fruitful and produc

protection, brigandage became prevalent: the retainers of an owner of land , once enlisted in his defence, might escape from

the Parthians Rome required new rulers for the future in the eastern lands . Antonius discovered the men and set them up as

nean house, now decadent, retained title and throne. 3 In the eastern lands many Julii reveal their patron by their names, de

standing in the place of Pompeius and Caesar as master of the eastern lands , not only did he invest Polemo, the orator’s son

eglected to set a firm hold on Armenia by planting garrisons over the land perhaps he did not have enough legions. Thus Arta

menia, captured and deposed the treacherous Artavasdes. He turned the land into a Roman province, leaving there a large army

. A large measure of decentralization was inevitable in the eastern lands . The agents and beneficiaries were kings or citie

t on herself wars foreign and civil. To the population of the eastern lands the direct rule of Rome was distasteful and oppre

Caesar might have annexed: they wisely preferred to preserve the rich land from spoliation and ruin by Roman financiers. Egy

ny representative of power it was natural and normal. Had the eastern lands instead of the western fallen by partition to Oct

s in Italy; that his own men had been passed over in the allotment of lands ; that Octavianus had deposed in arbitrary fashion

s of Antonius would surely be more than enough to provide bounties or lands for the armies of the East. 4 Antonius consigne

elief may safely be recommended. Nor is it to be fancied that all the land rose as one man in patriotic ardour, clamouring f

ecalcitrant communities, would pay the price in confiscation of their lands when the war was over. 2 In the constitutional

volutionary agitation at Rome with tribunes’ laws and the division of lands , Scipio Aemilianus and his friends, championing I

ice in 90 B.C That was the first coniuratio Italiae. Though the whole land was enfranchised after the Bellum Italicum, it ha

fought at her expense. Why should Italy sacrifice brave sons and fair lands at the bidding of enemies of Caesar or of Antoniu

ny of the veterans had served under Antonius, they had received their lands from his rival, regarded Caesar’s heir as their p

he kingdoms of the East and to seize a spoil so long denied, the rich land of Egypt. The most ardent exponents of the nation

mit between the dominions of the two dynasts, the Ionian Sea, and, by land , a narrow and impassable strip of the mountains o

orcyra and Epirus to the south-western extremity of Peloponnesus. The land army under the command of Canidius comprised nine

neighbourhood. Then all is obscure. Months passed, with operations by land and sea of which history has preserved no adequat

, that Antonius had already been severely defeated at sea, baffled on land . 6 The names of the commanders on either side a

nus, though ‘dux’, was even less adequate in maritime warfare than on land . Agrippa, the victor of Naulochus, was in command

Nile. Against Rome were arrayed the motley levies of all the eastern lands , Egyptians, Arabs and Bactrians, led by a renegad

the Ptolemies. He claimed, using official language, to have added the land to the Empire of the Roman People :4 he treated E

ained the traditional Roman practice as an excuse for not turning the land into a Roman province. 3 Acquiring Egypt and it

of Janus should be closed, a sign that all the world was at peace on land and sea. 5 The imposing and archaic ceremony did

terans being settled in colonies in Italy and in the provinces. The land was supplied by confiscation from Antonian towns

onqueror, not in verse only, or by the inevitable flattery of eastern lands . Like Alexander, he had spread his conquest to th

ts pride of place, lest the capital of empire be transferred to other lands . The propaganda of Octavianus had skilfully worke

the crowning victory of Actium and the reconquest of all the eastern lands for Rome. 2 The consensus embraced and the oath e

ly ἡγεμών. On the propriety of this term for the ruler of the eastern lands , cf. now E. Kornemann, Klio XXXI (1938), 81 ff.

ut the Empire had not yet recovered from their ravages. Spain, a vast land , had not been properly conquered; Gaul cried out

thus helped to postpone the final conquest of the Balkan and Danubian lands . In time, however, the Princeps encroached in Ill

could trust. Northern Italy was no longer a province, but the Alpine lands , restless and unsubdued, called for attention. A

ds against the Cantabrians from a base near Burgos. The nature of the land dictated a division of forces. The Romans operate

imposed by massacre and enslavement the Roman peace upon a desolated land . Such was the end of a ten years’ war in Spain (f

ria. 1 There had been successful operations in Gaul and in the Alpine lands , as well as in Spain,2 but no serious warfare in

from Africa in 21 B.C., Balbus two years later for his raid into the land of the distant and proverbial Garamantes. 3 Tha

rship, devising a vicegerent for the East and perhaps for the western lands as well. Not only this the war in Spain was not y

Italy were punished for Antonian sympathies by confiscation of their lands for the benefit of the veterans. 2 The estates of

he estates of the vanquished now profited further from the Principate land rose rapidly in value. 3 But the new order was

none the less, when offered some prospect that their aspirations for land and security would be recognized, the soldiers ha

of the Roman army, Augustus provided the discharged legionaries with land , Italian or provincial, which he had purchased fr

n. The commercial class profited in the Revolution, by purchasing the lands of the proscribed. Their number and their gains m

longer T. Junius Montanus is the prime example. 3 Again, in Egypt, a land forbidden to senators, Roman knights commanded ea

the conquest of Egypt and remained there as the first Prefect of the land , at the head of three legions. Certain other prov

and the region from Etruria eastwards towards Picenum and the Sabine land . Now they came from all Italy in its widest exten

by murder and rapine. Others came from the ancient aristocracy of the land , dynastic and priestly families tracing descent u

highly respectable family from Nursia, in the recesses of the Sabine land , served in the army as an equestrian officer:6 hi

ex. Vitulasius Nepos, cos. suff. A.D. 78, who probably comes from the land of the vestini (ILS 9368, cf. CIL IX, 3587). T. M

d to the Alps, embracing Cisalpina. To the wealth of the old Etruscan lands and Campania, to the martial valour of Samnium an

time of Augustus, of the recruits for the legions of the West, these lands gradually invade and capture the whole social and

the bounty of Augustus, which he proceeded to dilapidate by grandiose land speculation in Picenum. 4 L. Volusius Saturninus

iatic. The Augustan plan sought to rectify these defects by winning a land route from Italy to the Balkans and an adequate f

By 13 B.C. a firm beginning had been made. The conquest of the Alpine lands , prepared by the competent soldier P. Silius as p

r Syria during the period of his sojourn as vicegerent of the eastern lands (17-13 B.C.). That was one solution of the politi

As twenty years before in the Thracian War of Piso, so now the Balkan lands called again for reinforcement from the armies of

es as procurators became available above all the Prefects of Egypt, a land strictly managed on monopolistic principles. The

ate. Silius had conducted mountain warfare in Spain and in the Alpine lands . Vinicius knew both Gaul and Illyricum. Lollius w

, now appeared in the East. For some years disturbances in Armenia, a land over which Augustus claimed sovranty, while not s

talian peasants had crushed and broken the great kings in the eastern lands , the successors of the Macedonian; and they had s

Ligustinus (Livy 42, 34) who inherited from his father one iugerum of land and the ‘parvum tugurium’ in which he was born. H

l and encourage. The profiteers from war and proscriptions had bought land . Though a number of these men may have practised

. Italy was spared the realization of such perverse anachronisms. The land was more prosperous than ever before. Peace and s

he pulse of trade, augmenting profits and costs. The price of Italian land rose steeply. 3 The rich grew richer. Their money

lity and virtue. Patavium usurped the proverbial repute of the Sabine land for prudery; 4 and Brixia refused to lag far behi

ment proceeded to celebrate in verse the ideals of renascent Rome the land , the soldier, religion and morality, the heroic p

ticipated. The new régime was at peace with the gods and honoured the land . Earth requited with the gift of her fruits ‘iust

ceeded Ptolemy as Ptolemy had succeeded Pharaoh a god and lord of the land . Elsewhere in the East Augustus inherited from th

Rome ever again is honoured in the traditional fashion of the eastern lands . The language of that ‘Graeca adulatio’ so loaths

saviour; not only does he take from Pompeius the title of ‘warden of land and sea’; 7 PageNotes. 473 1 ILS 82. 2 Cf.

=>475 As in Galatia or in the cities of Asia, the aristocracy of land and birth is firmly riveted to the clientela of C

of Gaul and Galatia. National memories were not strong in the western lands : in the East the fact that the Principate was a m

ity, mocked and showed up the provincial. Pollio, an Italian from the land of the Marrucini, was provincial himself, in a se

ize supreme power but do not hold it for long. Africa and the eastern lands are pressing rapidly behind, soon almost to overw

iven into taking sides in a quarrel not their own or mulcted of their lands for the benefit of the legions. That was over. Th

37 see also Illyricum. Dalmatians, rising of, 431, 457, 476. Danube lands , see Illyricum, Moesia. Dardani, 223. Decidius,

Scipiones, 85. Lamus, fictitious ancestor of the Aelii Lamiae, 83. Land , ownership of, 12, 31, 194 f., 451 f.; price of,