as the consolidation of the revolutionary process. Emphasis is laid, however , not upon the personality and acts of Augustus, b

’ remarks about Galba, cf. Suetonius, Galba 4, I; Dio 64, I, I; note, however , Tacitus, Ann. 6, 20. PageBook=>002 ‘Pax e

l period is tangled, chaotic and hideous. To take it all for granted, however , and make a clean beginning after Actium or in 27

shed a victim of violence and despotism. The fame and fate of Cicero, however , are one thing: quite different is the estimate o

Sulla’s death and the rise to power of Pompeius the Great. Pollio, however , chose the consulate of Metellus and Afranius, in

gratitude by the defence even of notorious malefactors. The nobilis, however , would take pride in his feuds. 1 Yet he had ever

the petty dignity of municipal office in the towns of Italy. Others, however , grasped at the spoils of empire, as publicani in

certabant. ’ The passage refers to the generation after 70 B.C. Cf., however , no less pessimistic remarks about an earlier per

milii:2 but neither house resigned its claim to primacy. The Claudii, however , persisted, unchanged in their alarming versatili

rried Caesar’s niece Atia, widow of C. Octavius (his daughter Marcia, however , was the wife of Cato); and Marcellinus had been

ssion to the Senate as a solemn duty. 3 The legion was not withdrawn, however , until the next year, along with another previous

rant. NotesPage=>044 1 Cicero, Phil. 13, 28 f.: not veracious, however , for two of the alleged Pompeian consulars (‘quos

est in the matter, Roman Ideas of Deity (1914), 112 ff. Phil. 2, 110, however , is a difficult passage. Yet it can hardly be pro

year of Pharsalus. The Pompeians deducted, fourteen remain: no match, however , in eminence. Few of them were of any use to Caes

blood or marriage, certain were neutral. 3 The young Marcus Antonius, however , was the son of a Julia. Marriage secured the ina

ff.; on the Gaetuli, Bell. Afr. 56, 3. The clientela of the Pompeii, however , was very strong, cf. Cato’s words to Pompeius’ s

se in praise of the virtue and vigour of the novus homo. No evidence, however , that he was generous in act and policy, no man f

τoν ĸαȋ γένoς ές τò ‘Pωµαίων βoνλ∊ντή⍴ιoν ἀναĸ∊λ∊ƞµένoς. No evidence, however , precisely when he became a senator. 3 ILS 8888

he gentilicium‘Vehilius’ is rare and not noticed by Schulze: compare, however , the early inscrr. CIL I2, 338 f. (Praeneste). Fo

fam. 10, 31, 2 f. He prosecuted C. Cato (Tacitus, Dial. 34, 7), not, however an important person. The powerful enemies to whom

Rudolph, Stadt u. Staat im römischen Italien (1935). His main thesis, however , is firmly contested by Stuart Jones and by Cary,

h armed men. Lepidus and Balbus were eager for vengeance; 1 Antonius, however , sided with the moderate and prudent Hirtius. He

, 10, 1, April 19th) does not definitely incriminate him. By October, however , the situation has changed, the story has gained

tical entanglements, refused and wrecked the venture. For friendship, however , or for safety, it was advisable to maintain or c

rue, was appointed consul in 46 and Master of the Horse: no evidence, however , that Caesar prized him above Antonius for loyalt

es. Late in March he had received Macedonia. Before the end of April, however , it was known that Antonius intended to propose o

trouble with Antonius about the disposal of the Dictator’s property, however , he must have rejoiced in secret. 5 Then Octavian

a radical demagogue and by respected conservatives. For the moment, however , Caesar’s heir was merely a nuisance, not a facto

report of what was told him when he was absent from Rome. In Cicero, however , no mention of the Ludi Victoriae Caesaris, which

hat wherever they were, there stood Rome and the Republic. 2 Cassius, however , lingered in Italian waters for some time. As f

doptive parent were never revealed. The whole career of the Dictator, however , showed the fabulous harvest to be got soon or la

er came from the small town of Aricia! From dealing with D. Brutus, however , Antonius was impeded by no doubts of his own, by

ustus, cf. F. Blumenthal, Wiener Studien xxxv (1913), 125. Philippus, however , appears to have helped his step-son to pay the l

ctivities were usually less obtrusive. L. Cornificius (cos. 35 B.C.), however , an early adherent (Plutarch, Brutus 27), is quit

the Antonian consular Q. Fufius Calenus, an able politician. 1 Pansa, however , encouraged Octavianus at a quite early date. A

onsul alleged to have been corrupt, incompetent and calamitous. Piso, however , withdrew more and more from active politics. Yet

and relatives followed Cato and Pompeius in the Civil War. Servilius, however , had been ensnared by Caesar, perhaps with a brib

licy of the consul on September 2nd. When Octavianus marched on Rome, however , no news was heard of P. Servilius: like other co

of a private army against a consul of the Roman People. Servilius, however , was not altogether blameless, while Cicero stood

cero to compose NotesPage=>138 1 Ad Att. 7, 15, 2. 2 He may, however , have been influenced by circumstantial rumours.

pelled. Cicero’s changed decision had been all in vain. He persisted, however , and returned, though heavy of heart and with no

f Caesar’s heir in April. 2 Then nothing more for six weeks. In June, however , he recognized that the youth was to be encourage

ften deluded in his political judgements. No easy optimism this time, however , but an accurate forecast of the hazards of suppo

completed, this supplement to the Republic. After the Ides of March, however , came a new impulsion to demonstrate his concepti

ike the invectives against Piso. The other speeches against Antonius, however , may be counted, for vigour, passion and intensit

ds Antonius was declared and ferocious. But Cicero’s political feuds, however spirited at the outset, had not always been susta

ugh to achieve it. Public pronouncements on matters of high policy, however partisan in tone, cannot altogether suppress the

defence of Vatinius and Gabinius have not been preserved. One learns, however , that the strange garb of Vatinius was merely the

narchy it was the growth of servility and adulation. Men practised, however , a more subtle art of misrepresentation, which, i

rnment. Exactly what corresponded to the Republican constitution was, however , a matter not of legal definition but of partisan

d the cause. The continuance and complications of internecine strife, however , played havoc with the most binding ties of perso

ople could be expressed, immediate and imperative. For the present, however , legitimate authority still commanded respect, an

. PageBook=>167 Egypt in October, but no confirmation. Winter, however , while delaying news, would facilitate a revoluti

. This was a firm and menacing demand. For the friends of Antonius, however , it meant that a declaration of war had been aver

the consuls was associated Octavianus. The most extreme of sanctions, however , was reserved on the plea of the consular L. Juli

state of war was then proclaimed. It existed already. For the moment, however , no change in the military situation in the north

n, namely Calenus, Cicero, Piso, P. Servilius, and L. Caesar. Cicero, however , changed his mind and backed out. The embassy, he

he victory-honours Octavianus was granted an ovation, Decimus Brutus, however , a triumph, the charge of the war and the legions

of the Republic. 2 The others were of no importance. Lepidus himself, however , was to have a second consulate in the next year,

onius inaugurated his consulate by a triumph over Alpine tribes: Dio, however , says οὔθ’ λως ἡγϵμονίαν ν το ς χωρίοις κϵίνοτς σ

versaries and facilitated their return to public life. The Triumvirs, however , decided to root out their opponents all at once,

h youth but a chill and mature terrorist. 1 Condemnation and apology, however , are equally out of place. 2 The Triumvirs were

ius Plancus, was proscribed and killed (Pliny, NH 13, 25). M. Titius, however , nephew of Plancus, made his escape (Dio 48, 30,

ing Etruscan origin or influence, cf. W. Schulze, LE, 531 ff. Münzer, however , argues that he came from the ancient colony of N

ne, cf. above, p. 92. Another historical nonentity, of better descent however , was Sex. Pompeius (cos. 35 B.C.), the grandson o

1 So Antonius promised to give up the Cisalpina: he retained Comata, however , and took Narbonensis from Lepidus. Lepidus was a

forth as the revolutionary leader, unveiled and implacable. Antonius, however , a former public enemy, was now invading Italy wi

28, 1; Appian, BC 5, 58, 245. 4 Appian, BC 5, 53, 220. Appian may, however , be exaggerating the prestige of Antonius. Page

anybody, Salvidienus should have known how the odds lay. Once again, however , the Caesarian legions bent the Caesarian leaders

ted legions. His style of politics was passing out of date. Antonius, however , was still the victor of Philippi; military reput

eading senators, Caesarian, Republican or neutral. 2 For the present, however , no indication of such a change. Octavianus wen

via and by Salvidienus. Antonius had rejected those offers. As yet, however , neither his predominance nor his prestige were g

Pompeius. 3 Livia was about to give birth to another son no obstacle, however , in high politics. The college of pontifices when

support Pompeius had no monopoly, but all the odium. 2 C. Proculeius, however , now turns up, only a Roman knight, but a person

ptune, as was right, even though he did not hold a triumph. Apollo, however , was the protecting deity of the young Caesar, an

his class. 1 So popular had history become. On the writing of poetry, however , the Roman aristocrat, though he might turn a ver

ina, Cato, it was alleged (perhaps falsely), a freedman,2 the others, however , sons of wealthy families from the local aristocr

favour rapidly. Young Propertius came too late. The consular Pollio, however , who had ties with the new poets, survived to wri

ng tragedies about the monarchs of mythical antiquity; 2 before that, however , he had earned the gratitude of two poets, Gallus

long he remained an Antonian, there is no evidence at all. Virgil, however , persevered with poetry, completing his Eclogues

beloved of sentimental politicians, the sturdy peasant-farmer. Varro, however , had described the land of Italy as no desolation

raint to solicit and hold the petty employ of a scribe, with leisure, however , and scope for literary occupations, in his earli

ia may belong to Paullus’ work in 34 B.C. (Dio 49, 42, 2): there was, however , a restoration after damage by fire in 14 B.C. (i

3 Josephus, AJ 14, 137; 143; 162, &c. 4 It is seldom possible, however , to determine whether they got the franchise from

He was dealing with Octavianus: but he learned too late. Octavianus, however , was no more ready yet to exploit the affront to

e, the Roman frontier seemed secure enough. Only a few months passed, however , and the crisis in his relations with Octavianus

1908), 215 ff. (Sosius, Proculeius and Canidius Crassus): Proculeius, however , was surely coining for Octavianus on Cephallenia

al commands under Antonius; 2 the amiable and diplomatic L. Cocceius, however , may not have left Italy after the Pact of Brundi

young Lucullus and Favonius, the old admirer of Cato. There remained, however , enough distinguished survivors to support a new

rnment was already advancing rapidly in Gaul and in Spain; elsewhere, however , the burden of administration would impose a seve

Phil 2, 97. 3 Ad Att. 14, 12, 1. PageBook=>273 Egypt itself, however much augmented, could never be a menace to the em

lapsed after a winter, leaving no political consequences. By 33 B.C., however , the ambition of Antonius might have moved farthe

on apparent, heralding the break-up of the Antonian party. Cleopatra, however , was not the prime cause of the trouble. Next t

and Fonteius changed sides. A number of the younger nobiles remained, however , some to the very end. Most significant is the

ieved), was ‘so may I deliver my edicts upon the Capitol’. 5 No Roman however degenerate could have descended to such treason i

eader would tolerate no neutrality in the national struggle. One man, however , stood firm, the uncompromising Pollio. He had be

sPage=>295 1 As Tarn argues, CQ XXVI (1932), 75 ff. It is clear, however , that provincial levies were heavily drawn upon.

peius was pardoned, likewise Cn. Cornelius Cinna. 7 Scribonius Curio, however , was executed—perhaps this true son of a loyal an

certain number of petty dynasts or city tyrants. The greater vassals, however , he was eager to attach to his own clientela. 6 A

t peace on land and sea. 5 The imposing and archaic ceremony did not, however , mean that warfare was to cease: the generals of

f. 3 Nonius Gallus (ILS 89s, cf. Dio 51, 20, 5). It is not certain, however , what position he was holding in Gaul (above, p.

race (which appeared in 23 B.C.). Propertius uses it but once, ‘dux’, however , at least twice. 1 As late as the publication of

licitly mention a grant of proconsular imperium. That such there was, however , is clear enough. Premerstein (Vom Werden und Wes

or provoke civil war for the sake of a principle. The authentic Cato, however , was not merely ‘ferox’ but ‘atrox’. 4 His nephew

politics his mentors had been Philippus and Balbus. To retain power, however , he must base his rule upon general consent, the

primacy of Caesar’s heir should be strengthened and perpetuated. Not, however , under the fatal name of dictator or monarch. 1 O

n ring. That is all; and that is enough to show them up. Suetonius, however , a student of antiquities, was a scholar not whol

s (cos. suff. 30) and M. Titius (cos. suff. 31). It must be admitted, however , that full lists of provincial governors in the e

ostpone the final conquest of the Balkan and Danubian lands. In time, however , the Princeps encroached in Illyricum and in Mace

y? Tarii Rufi occur on Dalmatian inscriptions (CIL III, 2877 f.; cf., however , below, p. 362, n. 2); and Vinicius had a tribe n

of any fighting save when Taurus was there (Dio 51, 20, 5). Orosius, however (6, 21, 1), makes Augustus’ war begin in 28 B.C.

obably covered the dominions of the Princeps, east and west, lacking, however , authority over the provinces of the Senate. 1 Th

e corn supply of the city as Pompeius Magnus had done: this function, however , he transferred to a pair of curatores of praetor

of Rome and the world, was unique, his own justification. Continuity, however , and designation to the Principate was in fact ac

d by the grant of powers to an associate. Augustus’ own arrangements, however , were careful devices to ensure an heir in his ow

and Cornelius Gallus had been praefecti fabrum. Under the Principate, however , the position soon declines in importance. Page

lebeian, affected to despise knights or municipal men; which did not, however , debar marriage or discredit inheritance. A recen

tate. The novus homo might rise to the praetorship: to the consulate, however , only by a rare combination of merit, protection

cupletium, in hac curia esse voluit. ’ Claudius is not quite correct, however , in assigning the innovation to Augustus and Tibe

na, unmistakable in their non-Latin termination. 5 In the last years, however (A.D. 4-14), a significant phenomenon the renewed

nus is the first consul with a name of that type, nearly anticipated, however , by Salvidienus. Nor had there been a consul with

rvice to Augustus (ILS 2676). This person was a XXVIvir. No evidence, however , that he actually entered the Senate. 3 ILS 268

3, 24, 4 ff. (26 B.C.). 4 Velleius 2, 92; cf. Dio 54, 10, 1 (where, however , not a word about Egnatius). PageBook=>372

showing no great change from the Triumviral period. After 19 B.C., however , a development is perceptible. Yet this may be a

tical dynast was insistent to promote a deserving partisan. Pompeius, however , could not or would not support the Picene intrig

bonia to the advantageous and satisfactory Claudian connexion. Livia, however , gave him no children. But Julia, his daughter by

ly alliances were formidable and fantastic. He neglected no relative, however obscure, however distant, no tie whatever of marr

formidable and fantastic. He neglected no relative, however obscure, however distant, no tie whatever of marriage or of friend

delay to the elderly Quirinius. NotesPage=>379 1 Taurus’ son, however , married the daughter of a Cornelius Sisenna, his

t powerful of them through his own legates. Three military provinces, however , were governed by proconsuls. But they too were d

demanding the services of two separate armies. The supreme effort, however , was greater still. There was the Rhine as well.

to inherit the role of Agrippa and of Taurus. Without the Claudii, however , the situation might well appear desperate for Pr

IV (1934), 113 ff., with an inclination to the later years. It could, however , be urged that the new command was set up as a re

abala was the capital of a native principality. It would be possible, however , to assign to Piso the acephalous and much-contes

rst senator of his family, so perhaps was Lollius. Silvanus and Piso, however , were nobiles. These men all held high command

hine, it is not certain who followed Tiberius in 6 B.C.1 Before long, however , that important command, with five legions, was h

established. The first dealt with roads (20 B.C.); 2 it was composed, however , not of consulars but of praetorians. At a later

ntilicia the proconsuls who gave them the franchise; the newer Roman, however , bears for the most part the name of the reigning

roni (ILS 6087, c. 130). The central government under the Principate, however , was strong enough to do without such a prohibiti

4 IGRR IV, 244 (Ilium). 5 Dio 53, 15, 4 f. There is no evidence, however , about the date of this innovation. XXVII. THE

2 As was permitted in 23 B.C. (Dio 53, 32, 5). This does not mean, however , that he exercised proconsular authority in Rome

ght declare war but the People did not decide against whom; the wars, however grandiose and arduous they might be, were not alw

especially the son of M. Antonius. More remarkable than any of them, however , is L. Domitius Ahenobarbus (cos. 16 B.C.), the h

e all the faction of the Liberators. Certain great houses remained, however , rivals of the Julii and Claudii, not invited, or

Varus in 6 B.C. may, or may not, have had political causes. No doubt, however , about the significance of Ahenobarbus and Vinici

the head of three legions. 1 Tiberius could trust Lepidus not Gallus, however , the husband of Vipsania. Gallus, with all his fa

ce. Silius’ two brothers attained to the consulate, only one of them, however , to military command. 3 This being so, few indeed

not paradoxical, for this was a Claudian faction. In the background, however , stand certain noble houses which, for all their

he proceeds at once to demolish that impression. Velleius Paterculus, however , paints an alarming picture of the crisis provoke

man heroes in Aen. 6, 824 ff., or in Horace, Odes 1, 12. Marius does, however , just find a mention in Georgics 2, 169. 2 Sene

of A. D. Nock, CAH x, 467. PageBook=>456 Not every novus homo, however , or provincial aristocrat was an exemplar of virt

ur and industry of the novus homo. The opening of a career to talent, however , was not always conducive to honourable behaviour

atorship of Caesar at once became an object of lampoons. More deadly, however , was the indirect attack, namely the publication

d a domestic chronicler, the eloquent Theophanes of Mytilene. Caesar, however , was his own historian in the narratives of the G

ve interest in Roman religion and other national antiquities. As yet, however , no systematic exploitation of literature on the

to recitations with patience and even with benevolence. He insisted, however , that his praises should be sung only in serious

s true, was honoured by Horace in a conspicuous ode. Not so Messalla, however . As for the plebeian military men promoted under

reed and likely to inculcate a distaste for public service. Stoicism, however , was salubrious and respectable: it could be put

et. 1 Stoicism, indeed, stood for order and for monarchy. Catullus, however , could not have been domesticated, tamely to chan

e, pp. 305 f.; 313 f. 2 Tacitus, Ann. 4, 34. The term ‘Pompeianus’, however , need not denote an adherent of Pompeius. The Rom

o plead in solemn tones for the avenging of Crassus. 1 Antiquities, however , were more in the line of a Callimachus than was

servances with sympathy as well as with elegance. More than all this, however , the lament which he composed in memory of a Roma

e, that Augustus should be hailed as pater patriae (2 B.C.) Pollio, however , did not suffer himself thus to be captured by th

task, carrying his Historiae no farther than the year 67 B.C. Pollio, however , set himself to describe the fall of the Republic

of the dialect and spelling of his native city. One thing is evident, however : the nature of ‘Patavinitas’ cannot be discovered

is assigned as a direct result of the Battle of Actium. In Ann. 1, 1, however , Tacitus is more conciliatory ‘temporibusque Augu

aduce the Founder was an offence against the State. Not all emperors, however , were succeeded by rulers who had an interest in

A quid faciunt? ’1 The satirist Juvenal makes mock of pedigrees. Not, however , with all the fierce, free invective of a robust

rtensii, the Servilii Caepiones or the Calpurnii Bibuli. The Domitii, however , survived and prospered through the marriage alli

at all for the domestic dramas of Augustus’ Principate. Before long, however , they became entangled, not only among themselves

family can show no consuls in any branch after Nero. 5 The Calpurnii, however , provide a continuous list of victims, blended an

the beginning of the reign of Hadrian. Another branch of the Pisones, however , lasted even longer. 9 PageNotes. 497 1 For e

acious of life themselves, each produced one son at least. Daughters, however , were the heirs of the Gaditane Cornelius Balbus

ed. The other Poppaeus, a military man, left a daughter. 1 Quirinius, however , could show no children for two marriages with da

ain of the more reputable of the Triumviral or Augustan novi homines, however , appeared to have established their families secu

production of numerous offspring. Certain stocks of the new nobility, however , were prudent and tenacious enough to ensure cons

9 P-W XVII, 877 f.; for the stemma, ib., 870. Of all noble houses, however , the Acilii Glabriones, not of great political co

ssed, came another nobilis, Ser. Sulpicius Galba. 1 A few years pass, however , and among the army commanders of Claudius and Ne

, justice less a matter of partisan interpretation. At the same time, however , a new scourge arose which, for the aristocracy a

tus was so strong that the evil found little encouragement. Tiberius, however , was insecure. The nobiles suffered from their ow

clients, the tribal dynasts of Comata, into the Senate. This measure, however , was hasty and provocative, transient in its effe

rchy made its peace with the monarchy. By the end of Augustus’ reign, however , there remained but little of the Catonian factio

e ben. 4, 30, 1 ff. (above, p. 374). 2 Suetonius, Nero 4. Velleius, however (2, 72, 3), describes him as ‘eminentissimae ac n

st. 1, 50: ‘mansuram fuisse sub Pompeio Brutoque rem publicam. ’ Not, however , in Hist. 2, 38, where the historian speaks for h

derision of his pretensions, the ‘Romulus from Arpinum’. 5 Augustus, however , had a real claim to be known and honoured as the

ctoritas. 3 Which is true as far as it goes not very far, Auctoritas, however , does betray the truth, for auctoritas is also po

n with P. Cornelius Scipio (for whom cf. 35 B.C.). It is not certain, however , who he was. 36 B.C. The suffecti are revealed,

, ib. 470). In the matter of his connexion with the Cornelii Lentuli, however , the views of E. Groag are here given preference,