upon his adherents and partisans. The composition of the oligarchy of government therefore emerges as the dominant theme of politi

civil war and preserves the non political classes. Liberty or stable government : that was the question confronting the Romans the

thence to diverge into a description of the character and working of government . NotesPage=>001 1 M. Junius Silanus, grand

ing to acquiesce, if not actively to share, in the shaping of the new government which a united Italy and a stable empire demanded

f deplorable but necessary illegalities, the second of constitutional government . So well did he succeed that in later days, confr

, honours and power through revolution emerge as champions of ordered government , they do not surrender anything. Neglect of the c

to supreme power, supplemented by a brief analysis of the working of government in the new order, will reinforce their verdict an

a torn and distracted land into a nation, with a stable and enduring government . The tale has often been told, with an inevitab

cipal among his partisans. In all ages, whatever the form and name of government , be it monarchy, republic, or democracy, an oliga

and agents of power, the same men but in different garb. They are the government of the New State. It will therefore be expedien

tate and form NotesPage=>007 (No Notes) PageBook=>008 a government . That was left to Caesar’s heir, at the head of a

o frustrate its exercise. The two consuls remained at the head of the government , but policy was largely directed by ex-consuls. T

dominating forces behind the phrases and the façade of constitutional government the most remarkable was Servilia, Cato’s half-sis

r after a brief tenure. Another year and he was dead (78 B.C.). The government which he established lasted for nearly twenty yea

ion in Italy for Catilina attacked property as well as privilege. The government of the nobiles, supported by a sacred union of th

e linked in some fashion or other almost all the chief members of the government , the principes viri of note during the first deca

ous elevations. Such were the men who directed in war and peace the government after Sulla, owing primacy to birth and wealth, l

attack some pestilential tribune, or to curb a general hostile to the government . 3 But the Optimates were solid only to outward s

k=>029 subversive designs, he turned upon his ally and saved the government . Then, coming back to Rome after six years of abs

onstrate that he was still a force in politics and to embarrass the government without provoking flagrant disorder. 3 Generous i

e East at his back, he disbanded his army. Much to his annoyance, the government had proved stronger than he expected. A civilian

osals in the next year, causing bitter opposition from leaders of the government . The Senate proclaimed a state of emergency, susp

nciers and Crassus waited, patient in rancour. To maintain power, the government needed consuls. The men were not easy to find.

opt the language and tactics of a demagogue, might be captured by the government at a certain stage in his career, with no discred

tribunes, devising honours for the absent general and trouble for the government . 2 He had also prosecuted an ex-consul hostile to

he suburban vicinity of Rome, contemplating the decline of Republican government and hastening its end. Ahenobarbus had become c

fact provided resources of patronage for the party in control of the government . Nor was it at all likely that the dynast would a

ibonius Curio, a vigorous orator, began the year as a champion of the government , but soon showed his colours, blocking the long-a

vinces from Macedonia eastwards were in the hands of men loyal to the government , or at least not dangerous; 3 and all the kings,

nus (stationed already on Italian soil or now being recruited for the government and on the plea of legitimacy), a faction in the

st Rome. Not of his own choosing his enemies had won control of the government and deprived him of the command against Mithridat

cy of Pompeius recognized, Caesar and his adherents would capture the government and perhaps reform the State. Caesar’s enemies we

with whom he supplemented the Senate and reinforced the oligarchy of government , an important topic, demands separate treatment.

e made plans for a long future or laid the foundation of a consistent government . Whatever it might be, it would owe more to the n

to mock and dispel all hope of a return to normal and constitutional government . His rule was far worse than the violent and ille

servative and Roman than many have fancied; and no Roman conceived of government save through an oligarchy. But Caesar was being f

last of his rivals, converted the old Caesarian party into a national government in a transformed State. The composition and vicis

lla. 3 The third consulate of Pompeius thinned the enemies of ordered government , and a purge of the Senate soon produced another

the bitter and barren consolation of defaming the members of the new government . The most intemperate allegations thrown about by

, with senators and knights keeping to their allotted functions a new government of national concentration had been established.

the extension of the Roman franchise, but the spirit and practice of government had not altered to fit a transformed state. Men s

kon on something more than aversion from politics and distrust of the government , attested and intelligible even in towns and fami

A large part of Italy must have been outside the control of the Roman government in the years 88–83 B.C. The Samnites held Nola ev

rife. Not only the Italici are hostile to Pompeius and the legitimate government of Rome. Caesar has a mixed following, some strip

me, but must embrace all Italy. That Italy should at last enter the government of the enlarged state is a fair notion, but perha

ius Basilus, a not altogether satisfactory person, Caesar refused the government of a province, offering a sum of money in compens

was both a leading man in the Caesarian party and consul, head of the government . The Ides of March could make no difference to th

ution was restored, would Antonius be strong enough to hold party and government together? NotesPage=>096 (No Notes) Ch.

coalition of Caesarians and Republicans, Rome received constitutional government again. Concord was advertised in the evening when

ong those responsible for the maintenance of public order and the new government . Various intrigues were afoot. Dolabella had supp

terests, it was not altogether foolish to hope for normal and ordered government when the storm had spent its strength, when the p

ntonius, elected consul for that year, would be left in charge of the government when Caesar departed. Born in 82 B.C., Antonius

r a time. With the suppression of the Dictator and return to normal government , the direction of the State passed at once to the

ight to retain it. More than that, Antonius was consul, head of the government , and so unassailable by legal weapons. In the nex

ompromise and firm on principle, he would have been a nuisance to any government : not less so, but for different reasons, the Caes

last. On any count, the outlook was black for the friends of settled government . Octavianus did not belong to that class. The r

eady held office and preferment, were loyal to Antonius or to settled government , he must turn his hopes and his efforts towards t

of political science as a subject of academic study, that the arts of government may be learned from books. The revolutionary care

constitution and beyond the laws. When Caesar went to war with the government , avid and desperate men in his party terrified th

ced his conscience and acquiesced in a large measure of authoritative government at Rome. He was not a Cato or a Brutus; and Brutu

geBook=>139 some kind of open letter, expressing approval of the government . Oppius and Balbus found the result not altogethe

er even seen in the Senate. In spring and summer the cause of ordered government was still not beyond hope: to save it, what bette

ated reports from Spain that Sex. Pompeius had come to terms with the government . Cicero was sorry. 4 The domination of the Caesar

ction. Six years before, the same policy precipitated war between the government and a proconsul. Fanatic intensity seems foreig

ly he had deserted his post after March 17th when concord and ordered government might still have been achieved. Now, at last, a

to be the champions of liberty and the laws, of peace and legitimate government . That was precisely the question at Rome where an

or non-political elements. First in value come freedom and orderly government , without NotesPage=>154 1 BC 38, 3: ‘bonur

something roughly equivalent to the spirit and practice of Republican government . Exactly what corresponded to the Republican cons

that a gang (or factio), in control for the moment of the legitimate government , was oppressing the Republic and exploiting the c

l, trapped by Pompeius and the oligarchs, turned his arms against the government ‘in order to liberate himself and the Roman Peopl

erved’, ‘established’ or ‘restored’. Next to freedom and legitimate government comes peace, a cause which all parties professed

ntentious zeal that they were impelled to civil strife. The non-party government of March 17th, 44 B.C., was inaugurated under the

the generals of the western provinces when they decided to desert the government , making common cause with a public enemy. Lepidus

nt humanitarians or high-minded casuists. The party in control of the government could secure sanction for almost any arbitrary ac

n organize opinion in Italy so as to exert unofficial pressure on the government . This was called a consensus: the term coniuratio

enturer Sex. Pompeius to lay down his arms and come to terms with the government in Rome a heavy blow for the Republicans. Antoniu

e of two hundred miles of Rome, but to submit to the authority of the government . This was a firm and menacing demand. For the f

rmy and surrender at the discretion of a party that claimed to be the government , that was folly and certain extinction. Consideri

ons against a proconsul. Where and with whom stood now the legitimate government and the authority of the Roman State, it was impo

ars following depended upon control, open or secret, of the organs of government . Pompeius and his allies did not claim to be the

organs of government. Pompeius and his allies did not claim to be the government or the State: it was enough that their rivals sho

as presumed, the State would have been set in order and the organs of government repaired or the position of the Caesarian leaders

e in the four years that had elapsed since the Pact of Brundisium. Of government according to the spirit and profession of the Rom

stitution there could be no rational hope any more. There was ordered government , and that was enough. Private gratitude had alr

ns, when there would be no excuse for delay to restore constitutional government . Few senators can have believed in the sincerity

through influence or protection got restitution of property. But the government had many enemies, the victims of confiscation, ra

mphlets, indicating a programme of order and regeneration for the new government that should replace the narrow and corrupt oligar

rred, was to demonstrate how rotten and fraudulent was the Republican government that ruled at Rome between the two Dictatorships.

try, besides and above mere invective, could be made an instrument of government by conveying a political message, unobtrusive, bu

fter Sulla, the colonies of veterans, while maintaining order for the government , kept open the wounds of civil war. There was mat

might escape from control, terrorize their neighbourhood and defy the government . After the end of the campaigns in Sicily, Calvis

ous from pride in their exploits, conscious that by their support the government stood or fell. Grave mutinies broke out in 36 and

om Rome,3 that was only a testimony to their power, an attempt of the government to monopolize the control of prophecy and propaga

thynia, Asia and Macedonia. These vassal-states, serving the needs of government and defence, were not knit together by any princi

Cilicia Aspera conceded to Cleopatra did not come under direct Roman government until a century had elapsed. A large measure of

ecords voluntary manifestations of popular sentiment under a despotic government , a certain suspension of belief may safely be rec

s a return, not to freedom—anything but that—but to civil and ordered government , in a word, to ‘normal conditions’. Octavianus in

of indemnity will have depended upon the will and convenience of the government . How far was the process of regulating the Stat

in a fraudulently harmonious account of the restoration of Republican government at Rome. The denial to Crassus of the title of

an, not absolutist. Seeking to establish continuity with a legitimate government , Caesar’s heir forswore the memory of Caesar: in

Livy, Virgil and Horace of all Augustan writers stand closest to the government . On the whole, better to say nothing of Caesar, o

potism. There were none of them left—they had all joined the national government . Cicero would easily have proved to himself and t

laimed to be unique. Romans instructed in a long tradition of law and government did not need to take lessons from theorists or fr

almost unnoticed. No change in the foreign or domestic policy of the government , in currency or in economic activity. Indeed, the

s presidency. 5 Augustus’ purpose was just the reverse. He controlled government and patronage, especially the consulate, precisel

is more instructive to discover, in any time and under any system of government , the identity of the agents and ministers of powe

a multiplication of small provinces. No less simple the fashion of government . The ruler proposed to divide up the different te

e Princeps must build up, for Rome, Italy and the Empire, a system of government so strong and a body of administrators so large a

consul Piso, to Agrippa his signet-ring. 2 Under their direction the government could have continued for a time. Augustus recov

rsonal interest to discover a solider insurance, a tighter formula of government . Whatever happened, the new order must endure. Tw

the scheme: he now devised a formidable and indefinite instrument of government , the tribunicia potestas. As early as 36 B.C. he

le restriction of his powers in that sense a return to constitutional government , in so far as his authority was legal. The new se

ain the standards of Crassus and so acquire easy prestige for the new government . 3 Not only that. Syria was the only military p

Liberty had perished. The Revolution had triumphed and had produced a government , the Principate assumed form and definition. If a

ement of 23 B.C and to reveal the crisis in the inner councils of the government . The constitution is a façade as under the Repu

that art treasures in private possession should be confiscated by the government for the benefit of the whole people. 3 This was t

the distant future might bring, a more urgent problem confronted the government . Agrippa, Livia and the chief men in the governin

by the history of the Caesarian party and by the demands of imperial government . It was not the only formula or the only system a

ular and normal administration, held by the principal servants of the government . PageNote. 347 1 Velleius 2, 127, 2: ‘etenim

ution, behind the Princeps and his family, to build up a syndicate of government . 1 It is time to investigate in some detail the c

c. Capital received guarantees which it repaid by confidence in the government . More welcome than the restoration of constitut

divorced from his general and personally attached to the head of the government and, through him, to the Roman State. One body of

was quite superfluous. The absence of any system of representative government from the republics and monarchies of antiquity ha

ently provincial), vigorous and prosperous regions, were loyal to the government of Rome now that they had passed from the cliente

exert himself, firm and without fear. 2 What name the enemies of the government found for his behaviour has escaped record. One o

statesman, much in demand on decorative occasions as speaker for the government . It was necessary to be pliable. The spirit of in

new régime, but also feuds and dissensions in the secret oligarchy of government . When the social parvenu and revolutionary adve

reted the Sibylline oracle no doubt to justify the date chosen by the government . 6 Yet beside the great soldiers and politicians

id the debt by composing a history of Rome, fulsome in praise for the government and bitter in rebuke of lost causes and political

the military adventurer. That did not mean that the direction of the government now rested in the hands of Senate and magistrates

In a sense, the consulars of the Republic might be designated as the government , ‘auctores publici consilii’. But that government

e designated as the government, ‘auctores publici consilii’. But that government had seldom been able to present a united front in

the crisis of 23 B.C. furnished a deputy-leader and a partner in the government of the provinces. Agrippa was active in the East

had seldom been together in the same place. Demanded by the needs of government , the separation of the two dynasts also helped to

ain was provision for the soldier at the end of service to coerce the government and terrify the owners of property he was to rece

nd with success. But now Drusus was dead and Tiberius in exile. The government resisted the trial. For all his capacity and meri

at Tiberius was Rome’s sole and incomparable general. 1 A system of government had by now been built up. As has been shown, the

nd distinguished consulars was available for the needs of warfare and government . In the first and tentative years of the new disp

ncial commands. Of an unbroken career at the head of armies or in the government of provinces, legates of Pompeius and Caesar like

r than administrative. The legate of Syria might be a menace to the government in Rome. NotesPage=>397 1 Fleets are now c

mous. 5 Thus the New State endured, well equipped with ministers of government . But it was not in the provinces only that the pr

of Romulus, could justly claim to be the second founder of Rome. A government had been established. The principes viri were tam

partly to combat this practice and gain a monopoly of loyalty for the government . The last proconsul with a priest consecrated to

and their sons from becoming patroni (ILS 6087, c. 130). The central government under the Principate, however, was strong enough

uiring force of law. Yet once again, behind the nominal authority and government of the Roman Senate the real and ultimate power n

trol behind the scenes of all public transactions. The era of cabinet government has set in. The Senate was no longer a sovran bod

body, but an organ that advertised or confirmed the decisions of the government ; senatorial rank and the tenure of high office we

sel; and Balbus was instrumental in forming a famous compact. Cabinet government already existed in the brief Dictatorship of Caes

nsent and modest executive powers. It was therefore advisable for the government that is, the Princeps and the party- dynasts to s

r Monarchy, these advisory bodies were indispensable for the needs of government and administration. Talent and experience of th

ry talent and the artistic dissemination of opinion favourable to the government , Maecenas knew no peer and left no successor. In

hining glories it appears to have broken away from the control of the government . Augustus had grown hard and bitter with age; and

s, the members of his family and his personal adherents were the real government . The Principate arose out of usurpation. It never

sed Claudius in succession to his nephew Caligula, when Rome lacked a government for two days and in the Senate men debated about

the succession to the Principate or rather, for the continuity of the government . No less evident the acute differences of opinion

rotector of the young princes and minister of the Princeps in war and government . The marriage was unwelcome, so gossip asserted.

the steady and public progress of monarchy the importance of cabinet government is enhanced; secret policy and secret strife in t

olicy and secret strife in the counsels of the Princeps determine the government of Rome, the future succession and the destiny of

eir majority, a Council of Regency, open or secret, would control the government . It would be idle indeed to speculate upon the

a consul at this time. 4 Other families dominant in the oligarchy of government after Sulla are now missing or sadly reduced abov

t or dishonest, and the loyal servants of whatever happened to be the government of Rome now had their turn for nine years. Livia

rusive. There must be no open evidence of discord in the syndicate of government . In the end, everything played into her hands. In

to provinces and armies which had seen no member of the syndicate of government since Agrippa the vicegerent departed from the Ea

catastrophe. Against that risk the Princeps and the chief men of the government must have made careful provision. The way was sti

time for such exciting speculations had passed ten years before. The government party among the aristocracy old and new, built up

th L. Volusius Saturninus), and a firm company of novi homines. A new government is already in being. Yet this was not enough to

a list of the military and financial resources and obligations of the government and the Index rerum a se gestarum, which was to b

the working of patronage, the creation of an oligarchy and system of government . Security of possession, promotion for loyalty or

eror for another and changed the personnel, but not the character, of government . The same men who had won the wars of the Revolut

ers they cheerfully resigned the contest. The Roman arts were war and government : tu regere imperio populos, Romane, memento. 3

inceps. For the formation of character equal to the duties of war and government , the sciences, the fine arts and mere literature

ement and centres for the propagation of correct sentiments about the government . 1 Augustus awarded commissions in the militia eq

trong cannot derive its validity or its success from mere action by a government . There is much more authentic religious sentiment

society where profit and promotion depended upon the patronage of the government . To say nothing of the patent vice or rapacity of

ive was vigorous, ferocious but indiscriminate, save when there was a government in being. Then it mustered for the attack. Pamphl

nant individual or faction, appear to be fervently on the side of the government . It would be premature to discern in this metamor

hyrio. PageBook=>461 As was fitting, the poets favoured by the government proceeded to celebrate in verse the ideals of ren

PageBook=>464 Like other literary compositions fostered by the government , Livy’s history was patriotic, moral and hortator

a plebiscite expressing loyalty to the Princeps and confidence in the government . There were less spectacular but more permanent

palm he might meditate on the aspirations or the achievements of the government stamped in some concentrated phrase Libertatis P.

the seviri or augustales. These observances attested devotion to the government and seconded the dynastic and monarchic policy of

oreover, the Roman citizen of the towns with his tradition of law and government could respect the magistrate and the imperator wi

hy guaranteed its ready acceptance. The lower classes had no voice in government , no place in history. In town or country there wa

the Great did not shake Augustus’ confidence in the efficiency of his government . Herod’s death showed his value it was followed b

riends rather than expose or surrender the principal ministers of the government . The pearls of Lollia Paullina had a notorious or

n, the Roman colony was a military station. In Italy garrisons of the government , in the provinces the colonies were outposts of t

ese plots may not have been either as frequent or as dangerous as the government affected to believe and discover. 2 There was a g

its heart and core and compromised the existence of the new order. A government may invent conspiracies for its own ends: if it c

r such as could usefully be revived to adorn legend or consecrate the government . Caesar was saddled with the whole guilt of the C

tice, it was necessary to say much about that. Less advertised by the government , but no less distasteful to the nobiles, were the

w enormities. Strained relations between the principal members of the government were eagerly detected or surmised. As the most im

ese outbursts of liberty flattered their authors without alarming the government ; and men might still read without danger the oppr

Pollio, however, did not suffer himself thus to be captured by the government . This austere and embittered champion of Libertas

s or for occasional and apparently spontaneous criticism of the whole government . The major scandals, it is true., did not always

salla and Pollio; and its ablest exponents were bitter enemies of the government . PageNotes. 487 1 Suetonius, Vitellius 2, 1.

h or disgrace delivered up members of the dynasty or partisans of the government to retribution at last: curramus praecipites et

, 104, 2. 6 Ib. 2, 116, 2. PageBook=>489 Velleius, a typical government writer, is unswervingly loyal to Tiberius and to

rained to veiled criticism or delayed revenge upon the enemies of the government . Satire valiantly attacked the dead and the helpl

he satirist did not dare to deride the new nobility, the oligarchy of government in his own day. He makes mock of the needy Greek

were now confronted by an organized party and an organized system of government . PageNotes. 490 1 Juvenal 8, 1. 2 lb. 3, 60

their names, as families had done in happier days, upon a period or a government . In the background lurk their allies or their riv

r been pressing forward, able, wealthy or insinuating, devoted to the government whoever the Princeps might be. The son of the con

ageBook=>503 When his position becomes stronger, and a coalition government based largely on family ties has been built up, n

to a descendant of the Republican nobility and a loyal servant of the government , Ser. Sulpicius Galba: they should have been righ

of provincial consuls. They herald the Empire’s invasion of the Roman government , they seize supreme power but do not hold it for

already equestrian officers and political or financial agents of the government , not merely under Augustus but even with Pompeius

ht only be accelerated by ‘bad emperors’ or masterful servants of the government . It could not be arrested. The defeat of the nobi

s been sufficiently shown, may be appropriated by any faction and any government : it soon went the way of Pax and became Libertas

the moral may readily be inferred Cato, always an advocate of ordered government , would have been an enthusiastic supporter of the

enator Tacitus, who admired Republican virtue but believed in ordered government , wrote a history of the civil wars that his own g

eized control of the State, it would be plain folly to regard the new government as a collection of amiable and virtuous character

emands and produces sterner qualities. About the chief persons in the government of the New State, namely the Princeps himself and

lignant informants reveal the most eminent personages in the national government as a sinister crew, worthy heirs to the terrible

on of the Caesarian party and debarred from attacking the head of the government , has been at work here, eager to enhance or to in

dy to surrender the ruinous privilege of freedom and submit to strict government as in the beginning of time: nam genus humanum, d

. Personal rights and private status need not depend upon the form of government . And even though hereditary succession was sternl

tradition of philosophic thought held monarchy to be the best form of government . It was also primeval, fated to return again when

Aemilius Lepidus enjoyed the friendship of Tiberius; he supported the government without dishonour, his own dignity without danger

nce and the Caesarian party itself was transformed and transcended. A government was created. ‘Legiones classes provincias, cunc

ortal man, while it consolidated his own regime and the new system of government , none the less made the task of his successor mor

a faction’. Dux had become Princeps and had converted a party into a government . For power he had sacrificed everything; he had a

Rome, 461; repression of, 486; decline of, 487, 515 f.; servility of government writers, 488. See also History, Roman Poets. Li

ility of, 258, 291; constitutional, 320, 516 ff.; as the best form of government , 516, 518; as a guarantee of liberty, 518; and co

3. Munatius Plancus Bursa, T., Antonian partisan, 132. Municipia, government of, 82; votes of, 169, 286, 364; aristocrats from

96, 350. Officers, see Knights, Centurions. Oligarchy, as a form of government , 7 f., 18; of Sulla, 17 ff., 45, 61; code of, 57

358. Poets, politics of, 62 f., 251 ff.; ‘new poets’, 252; and the government , 251 ff., 459 ff. Pola, 363. Polemo, King of

; allotment in 44 B.C., 103, 107; of the Triumvirs, 189, 206 f., 217; government in the Triumviral period, 310; arrangements of An

entum, 225; date of expiry, 225, 277 f., 279; merits of, as a form of government , 347. Troy, not to be rebuilt, 305; Trojan desc