lf an oligarchy, a narrow ring, namely the nobiles, or descendants of consular houses, whether patrician or plebeian in origin,

ion. Cicero fell short of that eminence both when a consul and when a consular , or senior statesman, through lack of family- con

een years (123-109 B.C.). Q. Metellus Macedonicus (cos. 143) had four consular sons. For the stemma, see Table I at end. 4 Mün

he Roman People. Men feared a civil war. When Pompeius asked that the consular elections be postponed to permit the candidature

ted upon his own auctoritas, the wealth and influence of Crassus, the consular power of Caesar, and the services of a number of

ut not the only adherents of the dynasts, whose influence decided the consular elections for the next two years as well. 2 Des

taly. Though Pompeius or the enemies of Caesar might prevail at the consular elections, that was no unmixed advantage. The Mar

er was no adornment to the party of Cato. Already another leader, the consular Ahenobarbus, had suffered defeat in contest for a

omitius (cos. 96), Cicero, In Verrem 11, 1, 118. PageBook=>045 consular rank. 1 With the consuls of the last year of the

fter a brief respite of precarious peace. 2 In all, twenty-six men of consular standing were alive in the year of Pharsalus. The

ng the previous three years Caesar had not been able to influence the consular elections to much effect. 3 Deplorable in appeara

ad passed unscathed through the faction-wars of Marius and Sulla. 3 A consular who could stand neutral without the imputation of

ivil Wars (P-W IV A, 849 f.), became censor in 42 B.C. along with the consular C. Antonius (ILS 6204). PageBook=>066 in G

ricus. 4 Lepidus could recall a family feud against Pompeius; and his consular brother had been won to Caesar by a large bribe.

stated by Appian, BC 2, 129, 539. Other Caesarian patricians were the consular Messalla Rufus and Ser. Sulpicius Galba. 3 Münz

large. 4 Ib. 43, 49, 1. Caesar clearly contemplated a system of two consular and sixteen praetorian provinces, cf. Mommsen, Ge

enter the rigid and defined caste of the patricians. But the earliest consular Fasti and the annals of Regal and Republican Rome

designated or even allotted provinces to three of the Liberators, the consular Trebonius, D. Brutus and Tillius Cimber. 6 After

ppellation. At the end of March or early in April the Senate allotted consular provinces for the following year2 probably in a

was ready to parry that danger he would take that region for his own consular province and with it an army adequate to defy any

w of whom possessed family influence or talent for intrigue. Even the consular marshals evaded undue prominence, Fufius and Cani

signalled in Campania, where he was staying with his step-father, the consular Philippus. 1 More important, he had met Balbus, t

Antonius chose to get his command from the People. The tenure of the consular provinces, Syria and Macedonia, which had been as

ive up Macedonia, while retaining the Balkan army, and receive as his consular province Gallia Cisalpina and Gallia Comata as we

y also have been known who was to take the lead, namely the respected consular L. Calpurnius Piso. The balance in politics seeme

me was becoming untenable. If he lingered until the expiration of his consular year, he was lost. His enemies might win the prov

was serious. Antonius therefore resolved to take over one part of his consular province, the Cisalpina, at once. Then Plancus wo

the Senate met by night upon the Capitol. It was later alleged that a consular was ready on the side of Antonius with a bill of

esar’s heir a confidential mission to ensnare an elderly and wavering consular . 7 A certain Caecina of Volaterrae had recently t

ndo aut cur? quousque ludemur? ’ PageBook=>134 of the Antonian consular Q. Fufius Calenus, an able politician. 1 Pansa, h

THE SENIOR STATESMAN PageBook=>135 IN the Senate three men of consular rank had spoken against Antonius, namely L. Piso,

he anomalous alliance between oratory and arms, between the venerable consular and the revolutionary adventurer. There is a dang

he greatest Romans of his time. 1 Eager to maintain his dignitas as a consular , to pursue gloria as an orator and a statesman, C

her side not Antonius only, but the neutrals. Cicero was not the only consular who professed to be defending the highest good of

ay have permitted him to take over the province before the end of his consular year. Nothing extraordinary in that. Compare, in

energy as well as of social distinction. There was no Fabius now of consular rank, no Valerius, no Claudius. 2 Of the Cornelii

racy, the backbone of Sulla’s oligarchy, were sadly weakened, with no consular Metelli left alive, no Licinii or Junii. Nor coul

d Caesar’s Lex de provincia, which fixed two years as the tenure of a consular province: but that might have been contested, for

hat might have been contested, for Antonius’ command was not a normal consular province, decreed by the Senate and hence subject

Brutus and Cassius should have become consuls and have vacated their consular provinces, that is, until the end of the year 39

e most extreme of sanctions, however, was reserved on the plea of the consular L. Julius Caesar, the uncle of Antonius, an aged

honour; and it would clearly be expedient to give the youth a senior consular for colleague. Of the intrigues concerning this m

Yet neither of these men perished, and the murderers claimed only one consular victim, M. Tullius Cicero. The Caesarian leaders

ad mostly perished, leaving few sons; 2 there was not a single man of consular rank in the party; its rallying point and its lea

ancies. Persons of some permanence also emerge before long, rising to consular rank, P. Canidius Crassus, C. Norbanus Flaccus, o

appears as a champion of Libertas against military despotism, of the consular power against the Triumvirate (BC 5, 19, 74; 43,

ecome a father. The sister of Octavianus had a son, Marcellus, by her consular husband; but Marcellus was born two years earlier

ng past when that alone brought power at Rome. His brother-in-law the consular P. Servilius carried little weight if still alive

ship, magister equitum. 1 After that, no word or hint of this eminent consular until his attempt to bring legions across the Ion

epair of a great aqueduct, the Aqua Marcia. Now in 33 B.C., though of consular standing, he assumed the onerous duties of aedile

ast preponderating, may perhaps be detected in the composition of the consular list of that year, of unprecedented length: it co

38, and Marcius, cos. suff. 36). Ten only are sons or descendants of consular families. There remain twenty-five men, the earli

rs, especially the Pompeians and Republicans, could show no member of consular age or standing. The patricians were sparse enoug

s among the aristocracies of the kindred peoples of Italy. As for the consular Balbus, that was beyond words. The lower ranks

on of poetry lost favour rapidly. Young Propertius came too late. The consular Pollio, however, who had ties with the new poets,

ans Saturninus and Arruntius had turned Caesarian by now; and certain consular diplomats or diplomatic marshals, whose political

ing the end of a great career and a powerful party. Only three men of consular standing remained on Antonius’ side, Canidius, So

, by the experienced ex-Pompeian Q. Nasidius and by M. Octavius, of a consular family. 6 On the other side the fleet of Octavian

der at least who was perhaps not a proconsul and was certainly not of consular standing. 3 NotesPage=>308 1 If he receive

r to which he could appeal if he wished to coerce a proconsul was the consular authority, exorbitantly enhanced. To preclude dis

consuls of new families rather than noble, and praetorian rather than consular in rank; and no imperatorial salutations, no triu

salutations, no triumphs, if it could be helped. The nobilis and the consular , those were the enemies. NotesPage=>310 1

ssing veneration of more than mortal due. 1 A veteran politician, the consular L. Munatius Plancus, proposed the decree that con

o initiate and direct public policy at Rome if not to control through consular imperium the proconsuls abroad. 2 For such cumula

recent years these provinces had been governed by proconsuls, usually consular in rank. Thus all Spain, it appears, had been und

tes. 2 Provinces so large and so important called for proconsuls of consular rank, with a tenure longer than annual. That woul

was a recent warning. Triumviral authority, succeeded by an enhanced consular imperium, had recently been employed to control t

ate change from Triumviral practice. No longer the menace of a single consular proconsul governing all Spain, but instead two or

erned Spain as proconsul in absence through three legates, namely one consular and two praetorian. The division of imperial pr

aetorian. The division of imperial provinces into the categories of consular and praetorian is a subsequent and a natural deve

s. Some of the military men were advanced in years, namely the senior consular Calvinus, the two survivors from the company of C

the conspicuous lack of legates of Augustus either noble in birth or consular in rank. Not a single nobilis can be found among

ne of the Danube. 1 In the provincia of Augustus, the ordination of consular and praetorian provinces gradually developed; and

y only two provinces, Africa and Asia, were governed by proconsuls of consular rank. In the early years it might be expected tha

In the early years it might be expected that from time to time men of consular rank would be put in charge of the military provi

k=>330 Of these six legati Augusti pro praetore, only one was of consular standing. 1 The others were praetorian. Nor was h

nexions of one of the legates are uncertain; 2 none of the others had consular ancestors—if their parents were senatorial at all

15), cf. P-W V A 691 ff. Possibly a brother of Varro Murena. 3 The consular M. Acilius Glabrio, proconsul of Africa c. 25 B.C

rial of Primus and conspiracy of Murena to 22 B.C. Moreover, only one consular list, the Fasti Capitolini, reveals the fact that

us person called C. Cluvius (PIR2, C 1204), was specially adlected to consular rank in 29 B.C. (Dio 52, 42, 4). PageBook=>3

psed. But some perished or disappeared. Nothing is heard again of the consular L. Gellius Poplicola or of three other Antonian a

equestrian families. 5 Like other senators outside the circle of the consular families, such men were commonly precluded from t

horius, Hermes XXXIX (1904), 461 ff. Seianus had several relatives of consular rank (Velleius 2, 127, 3), cf. Table VI at end.

e are in all the years 15 B.C. A.D. 3 very few consuls who are not of consular families. The mere six novi homines do not belong

in his youth. Before his marriage to Livia, only one descendant of a consular family (Cn. Domitius Calvinus) belonged to the fa

any of them by the size of their armies already called for legates of consular standing. Yet this was apparent by 12 B.C at leas

early years of the Principate, competition was acute and intense. The consular Fasti reveal the best, or at least the most alert

patrician. The novus homo Cicero had to wait until he became a senior consular before acquiring the coveted dignity of augur, wh

mong them the prudent Cocceii, and even meritorious adherents not yet consular , like the Aelii Lamiae. 9 NotesPage=>382 1

rom a patrician family. Seianus had brothers, cousins and an uncle of consular rank. 7 The patronage which he could exert would

en. The great political ladies of the Republic, from the daughters of consular families such as Sempronia and Servilia down to m

of Augustus began to change into a permanent order of praetorian and consular provinces. Yet rigidity of system would have been

ast in the Principate of Augustus, Galatia was governed by legates of consular standing. 2 Galatia might suitably rank as a fron

g periods. Nor were the public provinces classified as praetorian and consular . Africa, it may be presumed, was governed from th

Africa, it may be presumed, was governed from the beginning by men of consular rank, perhaps Asia as well. Illyricum, as long as

al, and Macedonia, while it retained legions, can furnish examples of consular proconsuls. The Senate retained Africa, a provi

te, there existed seven military commands held by imperial legates of consular rank; of these, five lay along the northern front

campaigns of Piso. The first clearly attested legate of Moesia is the consular A. Caecina Severus in A.D. 6 (Dio 55, 29, 3). 4

governed Galatia at different times, one when praetorian, the others consular . M. Lollius (cos. 21 B.C.) carried out the annexa

ormer alternative: the latter might seem more plausible. Further, the consular legate Cn. Cornelius Lentulus, usually assigned

nators; and the presidents of the various boards were commonly men of consular standing. An ancient authority states a reason fo

d to try certain cases of extortion the judges were to be four men of consular rank, together with three praetorians and two oth

s, 235 f. According to Dio (54, 10, 5), in 19 B.C. Augustus was given consular imperium for life: for the interpretation of this

vice appears to have been Cn. Domitius Calvinus, the oldest surviving consular in the early years of the Principate. 4 NotesPa

cial armies. Late in 97 or early in 98 Syria is found to be without a consular legate (ILS 1055). 2 Dio 69, 1; SHA Hadr. 4, 10

s or the sons of the women of his house. Most of them were already of consular rank. Sex. Appuleius (cos. 29 B.C.), a dim and

ed a leader of standing in war and politics. A heavy preponderance of consular nobiles, consolidated by matrimonial pacts, was m

terval, and four more (3 B.C., 1 B.C., A.D. 2, A.D. 10). 4 The last consular Marcellus is Aeserninus (22 B.C.), a person of no

the Claudian faction would create repercussions to be detected on the consular Fasti and in the apportioning of the military pro

merous, of every order of society. Five nobles were among them. 1 The consular Iullus Antonius was put to death; 2 the others, t

m. 1 The consular Iullus Antonius was put to death; 2 the others, the consular T. Quinctius Crispinus, described as austere in a

alkans after their praetorships; 2 they received the consulate but no consular military province. Silius’ two brothers attained

influential friends, Maecenas and the Volcacii, a Perusine family of consular standing. 7 Like his kinsman, C. Propertius Postu

of affairs; and it will be a fair inference that Pollio, the eminent consular , like the senator Tacitus more than a century lat

d sons of the great priestly and dynastic houses of Asia, now holding consular rank in the imperial Senate. Still less does he v

he Metelli, an ex-Antonian, did not reach the consulate; and the last consular bearer of the name was a Junius Silanus by birth.

uration. 1 The plebeian Claudii Marcelli were also among the group of consular families that supported Pompeius. Their main line

la extinct an obscure grandson in the Principate of Augustus produced consular sons. 6 PageNotes. 496 1 Neither L. Marcius P

ely Censorinus (cos. 8 B.C.), seems to have left male issue. The last consular Marcellus was consul in 22 B.C. 2 ILS 935. 3

Messalla Corvinus, cos. A.D. 58 (cf. Juvenal 1, 107 f.), was the last consular Valerius. For the stemma of Messallina, cf. PIRl

inforcing an earlier link between their families (ILS 8996). The last consular Lentuli were P. Scipio and P. Scipio Asiaticus (A

he Caesarian partisans Vatinius, Trebonius, Hirtius and Pansa left no consular descendants, any more than had Pompeius’ consuls

ius Gallus (cos. 37 B.C.), and M. Herennius (cos. 34 B.C.) each had a consular son, but no further descendants. 4 Seneca, De c

the reigning dynasty was no less dangerous. Like the nobiles, the new consular families, as befitted the dual composition of the

Yet the succeeding period did not entirely lack bearers of Augustan consular names to adorn the Fasti their principal use. For

opagated the Asinii with six sons, of whom three at least attained to consular rank:4 a direct descendant was consul under Traja

ecome connected in some way, through marriage or adoption, with a new consular stock of the time of Augustus, the Aelii Lamiae.

e was succeeded by a man from Spain, M. Ulpius Traianus, the son of a consular and therefore a person of social as well as of mi

voted to the government whoever the Princeps might be. The son of the consular Passienus, adopted by the Augustan secretary of s

ates who commanded the armies in his provincia, and only three men of consular standing. PageNotes. 502 1 D. Valerius Asiati

Stein (Hermes LII (1917), 564 ff.) argues that it applies to families consular before A.D. 14 the year in which election by the

Hadrien à la mort de Commode (1936), 183 ff. PageBook=>506 The consular Fasti furnish the most patent evidence of the int

was a political scapegoat, while Quirinius, Titius and Tarius left no consular sons as objects of fear or flattery. It is evid

ent characters than Dellius and Plancus were Messalla and Pollio, the consular patrons of Augustan literature, themselves no mea

4. APPENDIX: THE CONSULS 80 B.C.–A.D. 14 PageBook=>525 THE consular Fasti of the years 509 B.C.-A.D. 14 were edited a

and condemnation, 48, 66, 144; a Caesarian, 62, 81; his death, 62; no consular son, 498; alleged vices, 149; his character defen

reer, 25, 29, 32; consulate and alliance with Pompeius, 8, 33 f.; his consular province, 36; at Ravenna and Luca, 37; relations

Silanus, D., paramour of the younger Julia, 432. Junius Silanus, L., consular candidate in 22 B.C., 371. Junius Silanus, M. (

peius, 31, 67, 396; of Caesar in Gaul, 67, 94 f., 199; of Octavianus, consular and praetorian, 327, 329 f., 393; in 27–23 B.C.,

22. Plautius, A. (cos. suff. 1 B.C.), 422. Plautius Hypsaeus, P., consular candidate for 52 B.C., 40. Plautius Rufus, conspi

of, after Actium, 302 f.; division in 27 B.C., 313 ff., 323 ff., 394; consular and praetorian, 326 ff., 393; Augustus’ control o

75, 423, 436. Valerius Messalla Rufus, M. (cos. 53 B.C.), disgraced consular , 62, 69; his long life, 165, 412; writings, 377.

d death-bed advice, 177; character and policy, 133; his wife, 134; no consular descendants, 498. Vibius Postumus, C. (cos. suf