f characters mentioned in a brief and compressed fashion has been the cause of peculiar difficulties. Many of them are bare n

27 B.C. is an offence against the nature of history and is the prime cause of many pertinacious delusions about the Principa

em Augustus from panegyric and revive the testimony of the vanquished cause . That would merely substitute one form of biograp

Civil Wars every party and every leader professed to be defending the cause of liberty and of peace. Those ideals were incomp

and peace of mind had not ambition and vanity blinded him to the true causes of his own elevation. 5 The political life of t

eir campaigns were over. But not veterans only were attached to his cause from his provincial commands the dynast won to hi

rights of the tribunes and supported by a resurgence of the defeated causes in Italy. The tribunes were only a pretext, but t

stry as an advocate, pressed his candidature, championing all popular causes , but none that were hopeless or hostile to the in

toration of the proscribed, Caesar spoke for family loyalty and for a cause . But he did not compromise his future or commit h

uses the words ‘Appietas’ and 'Lentulitas’, ib. 3, 7, 5. He had ample cause to complain of Appius. PageBook=>046 The p

ess in the summer of 50 B.C. may not have been wholly due to physical causes . 4 Cf. E. Meyer, Caesars Monarchie3, 299 ff.

re needed to stamp out the last and bitter resistance of the Pompeian cause in Africa and in Spain. ‘They would have it thu

ble men, at the foot of his own statue. That was not the point. The cause of Pompeius had become the better cause. Caesar c

That was not the point. The cause of Pompeius had become the better cause . Caesar could not compete. Though interest on eac

eform. But Caesar seemed different: he had consistently advocated the cause of the oppressed, whether Roman, Italian or provi

for eleven years. But Brutus, after Pharsalus, at once gave up a lost cause , receiving pardon from Caesar, high favour, a pro

the meaning of that act; and Servilia disapproved. There were deeper causes still in Brutus’ resolve to slay the tyrant envy

and during the Civil Wars he did not abate his sincere efforts in the cause of concord. So much for the principes: before l

heir class in society, men went with a leader or a friend, though the cause were indifferent or even distasteful. Of Caesar’s

roscribed; and some rallied soon or late to the Sullan system and the cause of Pompeius. But not all were now Pompeians P. Su

ician, for good or for evil. Caesar the proconsul was faithful to the cause . In his company emerge ex-tribunes noted for past

d dignity, once a devoted adherent of Cicero, for activities in whose cause he had been NotesPage=>081 1 W. Schur, Bon

first made by agrarian reformers at Rome, with interested motives. A cause of dissension in Roman politics, the agitation sp

and all the Samnites marched on Rome, not from loyalty to the Marian cause , but to destroy the tyrant city. 4 Sulla saved Ro

ur, wealth and family and perhaps a timely abandonment of the Italian cause Rome’s enemy entered the Roman Senate. 2 But th

is appropriate, to families that furnished prominent partisans to the cause of Marius. 3 Another termination is found not onl

ot prove, though it might support, the view that Antonius intended to cause trouble. D. Brutus writes: ‘quo in statu simus, c

he untrustworthy. Cicero, who had lent his eloquence to all political causes in turn, was sincere in one thing, loyalty to the

the local aristocracies. 2 The degree of sympathy for the Republican cause defies any close estimate: it may not be measured

Liberators. 1 Further, attempts were made to convert Hirtius to their cause . 2 But Dolabella, though not impervious to flatte

lay, no attempt to secure a majority of the army commanders for their cause and they did not think that it was necessary. At

solicited the favour or enlisted the services of the veterans in the cause of public order. As for the provinces, D. Brutus

ts would his adopted son have succeeded in playing off the Republican cause against the Caesarian leaders, survived the War o

erators towards the Roman constitution, their reluctance to provide a cause of civil war and their proud conviction that wher

have to be doubled and redoubled. Octavianus was resolute. He had a cause to champion, the avenging of Caesar, and was read

der Antonius’ quaestor L. Egnatuleius, had embraced the revolutionary cause . Had the consul attempted to outlaw Octavianus, a

for Pompeius and for the Republic, and damaged in repute, surviving a cause for which better men had died, will none the less

being a party. It was in truth what in defamation the most admirable causes had often been called a faction: its activity lay

But not for long they were a minority and could be held in check. The cause of Caesar’s heir was purely revolutionary in orig

family connexions that could be brought into play, for the Caesarian cause or for the Republic. 6 Whatever the rumours or

an aspirant to political honours who, after espousing various popular causes and supporting the grant of an extraordinary comm

sulars. The leaders were Pompeius and Cato. It was clearly the better cause and it seemed the NotesPage=>137 1 Ad fam.

d, Cicero was never even seen in the Senate. In spring and summer the cause of ordered government was still not beyond hope:

tween Antonius and Cicero there lay no ancient grudge, no deep-seated cause of an inevitable clash: on the contrary, relation

ence of Cicero, or at least to commit him openly to the revolutionary cause . By the beginning of November daily letters passe

restored’. Next to freedom and legitimate government comes peace, a cause which all parties professed with such contentious

Pompeius took a cognomen that symbolized his undying devotion to the cause , calling himself ‘Magnus Pompeius Pius’. 3 Caesar

es Pollio was not the only one who followed the friend but cursed the cause . The continuance and complications of internecine

n provinces when they decided to desert the government, making common cause with a public enemy. Lepidus duly uttered the exe

rike down that worthy and innocuous pair, Hirtius and Pansa. The true cause was probably an urgent dispatch from the governor

f March. Like Brutus himself, many of these nobiles had abandoned the cause of Pompeius after Pharsalus. Not so the personal

uppression of Antonius, to the revival of the Republican and Pompeian cause . In the provinces of the West stood Plancus, Le

The pessimistic and clear-sighted Republican felt no confidence in a cause championed by Cicero, the pomp and insincerity of

onfirmed until more than two months had elapsed. For the Republican cause , victory now seemed assured in the end. Consterna

position was. Antonius might be destroyed hence ruin to the Caesarian cause , and soon to Caesar’s heir. Antonius had warned h

f interest, hardened by the renascence of the Republican and Pompeian cause , was so strong that the loyal dispatches which Le

te was a weapon that had broken to pieces in his hands. 4 The prime cause of disquiet was Cicero’s protégé, the ‘divine you

ved, in hoping that Octavianus would still support the constitutional cause now that it had become flagrantly Pompeian and Re

anus, who had carried his messages to Antonius, soon fell away to the cause of the Republic. 2 The others were of no importan

remembered Sulla. Often enough before now proscriptions had been the cause of secret apprehension, the pretext of hostile pr

consolidated the Caesarian party. Yet there were personal and local causes everywhere. Under guise of partisan zeal, men com

h Pompeius they found a refuge, with Brutus and Cassius a party and a cause , armies of Roman legions and the hope of vengeanc

Cassius, eagerly or with the energy of despair. Six years earlier the cause of the Republic beyond the seas was represented b

long with men of lower station. 6 Then Caesarian officials joined the cause , first Hortensius, the proconsul of Macedonia, an

nd the recalcitrance of Rhodes and the cities of Lycia, the Caesarian cause had suffered complete eclipse in the East. Brut

ϵύϵɩν γὰρ αὑτ ν αἰτίᾳ μ λλον ἣ τ ν τυραννούντων. PageBook=>204 cause , it is held, was doomed from the beginning, defea

folly in the end. 4 When the chief men surviving of the Republican cause were led before the victorious generals, Antonius

try, which had been loyal to Rome then, but had fought for the Marian cause against Sulla. Now a new Sulla shattered their st

the East. In Perusia the consul professed that he was fighting in the cause of his brother, and his soldiers inscribed the na

blem. Many senators and Roman knights of distinction had espoused the cause of liberty and the protection of their own estate

5 Appian, BC 5, 52, 216. PageBook=>215 merely championed his cause and won Republican support, but even raised civil

ed with him until they recognized, to their own salvation, the better cause ‘meliora et utiliora’. 2 Many senators and knig

a time that the young Pompeius might be a champion of the Republican cause . But it was only a name that the son had inherite

s and associates, even his father-in-law Libo, deserted the brigand’s cause and made peace with Antonius, some entering his s

rants abode loyalty, not to Rome, but to Pompeius their patron, whose cause suddenly revived when young Labienus broke throug

onius went farther. During the War of Mutina he publicly asserted the cause of Caesar’s friend Theopompus. 5 Now standing in

d by personal loyalty or family ties rather than by a programme and a cause , would stand the strain of war. The clash was n

pon an innocent and unsuspecting ally. Both sides were preparing. The cause or rather the pretext was the policy which had be

ome. The time was not quite ripe. The official Roman version of the cause of the War of Actium is quite simple, consistent

ect rule of Rome was distasteful and oppressive, to the Roman State a cause of disintegration by reason of the military ambit

he policy and ambitions of Antonius or of Cleopatra were not the true cause of the War of Actium ; 4 they were a pretext in t

upon the loyalty of a party that was united not by principle or by a cause but by personal allegiance. Generous but careless

break-up of the Antonian party. Cleopatra, however, was not the prime cause of the trouble. Next to Antonius stood the Repu

Dio 50, 3, 1 ff.; Velleius 2, 83. Dio is not very explicit about the cause of their desertion πρoσκρʋúσαντέϛ τι αὐτῷἐκεῖνʋι

or by moral suasion the levying of ‘volunteer’ armies in a patriotic cause . Cicero’s friends used votes of the colonies and

ans. It would be a brave man, or a very foolish one, who asserted the cause of liberty anywhere in the vicinity of Calvisius

aesar in the invasion of Italy. The adhesion of Sulmo to the national cause seventeen years later may perhaps be put down to

propaganda of the Caesarian party and refuse to believe that the true cause of the war was the violent attempt of a degenerat

as worth it not merely to the middle class, but to the nobiles. Their cause had fallen long ago, not perhaps at Pharsalus, bu

business men or native dynasts, were firmly devoted to the Caesarian cause . Men from Spain and Gallia Narbonensis had alread

erent. 1 There is a mysterious calamity in these years unexplained in cause , obscure in date. C. Cornelius Gallus the Prefect

Pompeius. Genuine Pompeians there still were, loyal to a family and a cause —but that was another matter. Insistence upon the

ntonius, to Sex. Pompeius and again to Antonius, thence to the better cause . 3 The father of Norbanus had been general, along

would command armies again. Yet, apart from these survivals of a lost cause , Rome could boast in 27 B.C. some eleven viri tri

deeply rooted, more firmly embedded. It remains to indicate the true cause of the settlement of 23 B.C and to reveal the cri

cking claims of pietas towards the Princeps, service to the Caesarian cause and protection in high places. The Caesarian part

rhaps from purely military needs as well as from social and political causes namely the practice of placing centurions in char

iles from the Senate. But the master of patronage could attach to his cause even the most recalcitrant of the nobiles; and so

firmly consolidated than Caesar’s miscellaneous following, bound to a cause and a programme as well as to a person. Furthermo

y be a result, not only of Augustus’ own enhanced security, with less cause to fear and distrust the nobiles, but of accident

sulate. Of the nobiles, many of the most eminent were attached to the cause by various ties. Some, such as Paullus Fabius Max

me, fulsome in praise for the government and bitter in rebuke of lost causes and political scapegoats. The work was dedicated

f government, the separation of the two dynasts also helped to remove causes of friction and consolidate an alliance perhaps b

. 2 Dio (54, 34, 4), dating the transference to 11 B.C., assigns as cause the need for military protection which fits his c

clients, arousing the distrust of the Princeps; 5 not always without cause . But careful supervision at first and then the ab

ppearances. 2 Whatever the behaviour of Julia, that was not the prime cause of the crisis of 6 B.C. Tiberius was granted the

e Aemilii perpetuated their old political alliance with the Caesarian cause , but not through the Triumvir. His nephew and ene

ntius in Syria by Varus in 6 B.C. may, or may not, have had political causes . No doubt, however, about the significance of Ahe

rius; 4 and a despicable eastern king, Archelaus of Cappadocia, whose cause Tiberius had once defended before the Senate, was

emento. 3 But the possession of an empire was something more than a cause for congratulation and a source of revenue. It wa

cession of striking individuals a symptom of civic degeneration and a cause of disaster. It was the Greek period of Roman his

citus; no less evident that it was slow in operation and due to other causes than the legislation of Augustus,2 for luxury, so

, 354. No Roman husband, even in the lowest class of society, had any cause to suspect him (ib. 351 f.). PageBook=>468

ses of a regenerated society. Their influence and their example would cause the lessons of patriotism and morality to spread

was his habit to boast openly that he had always followed the better cause in politics. 2 As he had been among the earliest

urts; but politics are probably at the bottom of a number of recorded causes célèbres. L. Nonius Asprenas, the brother-in-law

prehended Antonius in justification of his own adhesion to the better cause . Q. Dellius described the eastern campaigns of An

Ars amatoria of Ovid. Contemporary political literature provided the cause and the fuel. Thus did Augustus have his revenge,

rejudices and the resentment of the Roman aristocracy and reveals the causes and tragedy of their decadence. The nobiles have

f a catastrophe, doomed to slow and inexorable extinction. The better cause and the best men, the brave and the loyal, had pe

action suffered heavy loss through loyal or stubborn adhesion to lost causes Pompeius, Libertas and Antonius. Cato’s son fell

Augustus. Vespasian’s nobility was his own creation. The Flavians had cause to be suspicious. Though the murderous tyranny of

tween their own ‘industria’ and the ‘inertia’ of the nobles. The true causes lie deeper: as has been shown, they are political

the Republicans never quite reckoned Cicero among the martyrs in the cause of Libertas. Of the authentic champions of that i

ould have been an enthusiastic supporter of the New State; the better cause for which Cato fought had prevailed after his dea

raitor ’morbo proditor’. 1 Fools or fanatics perished along with lost causes : the traitors and time-servers survived, earning

of, 276 f.; enhanced by propaganda, 297 f. Actium, War of, 294 ff.; causes , alleged and real, 270 f., 275; true character, 2

cos. 47 B.C.), Caesarian partisan, 66, 94, 111, 126, 197; defends the cause of Antonius, 165, 167, 168, 172; rescues Varro, 1