brother, Q. Servilius, husband of Hortensius’ daughter, was cut off before his NotesPage=>023 1 Evidence of the wealt

ut it was not character and integrity only that gave Cato the primacy before consulars: he controlled a nexus of political all

y themselves with the strongest military leader, with Sulla’s heir as before with Sulla. The implacable Cato detested the fi

a). No province of the Empire was immune from his control. Four years before , Pompeius had not even been a senator. The decay

ast overshadowed the politics of Rome, sending home from the East, as before from Spain, his lieutenants to stand for magistra

aid homage to Pompeius as a god, a saviour and a benefactor, devising before long a novel title, ‘the warden of earth and sea’

t. 2 Pompeius Magnus trod warily and pleased nobody. His first speech before the People was flat and verbose, saying nothing.

h, Pompeius 54). But there were strong and authentic rumours the year before , cf. Ad Q. fratrem 3, 8, 4. 2 Milo was a Papius

be historical. Caesar strove to avert any resort to open war. Both before and after the outbreak of hostilities he sought t

n for their own ends many times in the past. Exceptions had been made before in favour of other dynasts; and Caesar asserted b

ay: he was declared a public enemy if he did not lay down his command before a certain day. By invoking constitutional sanctio

d lost the first round. Then a second blow, quite beyond calculation: before the summer was out the generals of Pompeius in Sp

ed: abroad he might enjoy his conscious mastery of men and events, as before in Gaul. Easy victories but not the urgent needs

d them. 1 A just complaint, but not integral truth: a Sullan partisan before turning popularis, Pompeius by his latest change

sincere efforts in the cause of concord. So much for the principes: before long, most of the Pompeian consulars were dead, a

Marius and the battle-cries of the last civil war, only thirty years before . The memory of Sulla was loathed even by those wh

and the advocacy of reform for his personal ambition. Like his father before him, Pompeius could not be described as a consist

tock. Caesar, like Sulla, was a patrician and proud of it. He boasted before the people that his house was descended from the

itary service remunerative. Caesar borrowed funds from his centurions before the crossing of the Rubicon. Though equestrian

6 Pliny, NH 15, 49 PageBook=>072 on secret and open missions before and after the outbreak of the Civil War to confir

spread to the provinces. Pompeius Magnus surpassed all the proconsuls before him. In the West, in Africa and throughout Asia,

tral tie with the Domitii and saw the recent laurels of Pompeius wane before the power and glory of Caesar, the Germans shatte

ulla1 who had acquired an evil name for his acquisitions thirty years before . Balbus was notorious already, envied and hated f

isite no exorbitant condition. Sons of freedmen had sat in the Senate before now, furtive and insecure, under the menace of ex

boast opulent and cultivated natives of dynastic families, Hellenized before they became Roman, whose citizenship, so far from

is class, which, lacking full documentation, is sometimes disregarded before it emerges into imperial history with two consuls

ovincia, which received a Roman colony at Narbo as early as 118 B.C., before all Italy became Roman, was also subjected to cas

ers it hard to understand the composition and character of the Senate before his Dictatorship NotesPage=>080 1 Caesar,

r the possibility that there were one or two provincial senators even before Caesar, cf. BSR Papers XIV (1938), 14. PageBook

ere dominant in Arretium, hated for their wealth and power. Centuries before , the citizens had risen to drive them out. 8 The

ry of oppression and war, of defeat and devastation. Only forty years before Caesar’s invasion, the allies of Rome from Asculu

domi nobiles. ’ Etruria, an eager ally of Lepidus only fifteen years before , provided the nucleus of the movement this time l

ition of Italy: his decision to evacuate the peninsula was taken long before it was manifest and announced. It is evident en

. 2 Some of Caesar’s municipal partisans were already in the Senate before the outbreak of the Civil War, though no previous

ital at last. The Paeligni have to wait a generation yet, it is true, before they can show a senator; 4 the leading families o

names are casually revealed in the lowest ranks of the Roman Senate, before Sulla as well as after, borne by NotesPage=>

uls took office in the years 48–44 B.C., all men with senatorial rank before the outbreak of the Civil War. Five of them were

ended that M. Brutus and C. Cassius should be consuls in 41 B.C.3 But before these dispositions could all take effect, civil w

refuge in the small towns in the neighbourhood of the capital. Long before this, the futility of their heroic deed was manif

he trusted and promoted by the marshals Decimus Brutus and Trebonius before all. The honour of the army had been outraged.

opf will here be accepted for the most part. PageBook=>103 and before the Dictator’s acta were ratified on March 17th,

s in the far West. In Syria Bassus had stirred up civil war two years before , seizing the strong place of Apamea. His forces w

deplorable fact that the Republicans did not dare to show themselves before the Roman People, all was not lost. The Dictator

ay from Rome. He spoke the language of conciliation,1 and it was long before he abandoned it. On his lips the profession of re

terests calls neither for surprise nor for excuse. Rumours circulated before long, to be reinforced by monstrous allegations w

given Antonius the position of vantage. At first he seemed harmless:5 before long, he was seen to NotesPage=>108 1 Ad A

t merely to deceive; about the same time, Antonius delivered a speech before the People, friendly and favourable to the Libera

of Antonius, taking new courage, may have gone too far. It was known before the event that there would be criticism of the co

Crete and Cyrene. Brutus left Italy towards the end of the month, not before publishing a last edict. He affirmed the loyalty

so destroy the Caesarian party, first Antonius, then Octavianus. But before such respectable elements could venture openly to

or absent. He had to be content with the plebs and a tribune. Brought before an assembly of the People by Ti. Cannutius, the y

idienus Rufus and M. Vipsanius Agrippa, ignoble names and never known before . 1 They were destined for glory and for history.

e end his faction retained the mark of its origin. A long time passes before any number of senators emerge on his side. When f

attacked Piso for his conduct of the governorship of Macedonia, both before and after the proconsul returned, on any excuse.

ty of Caesar had been abolished brought a rapid disillusionment. Even before the Ides of March he thought of departing to Gree

re championing of the Republic. He resolved to wait until January 1st before appearing in the Senate. But Octavianus and D. Br

onius with the choice between capitulation and destruction. Six years before , the same policy precipitated war between the gov

eldom dreary, hypocritical or edifying. Persons, not programmes, came before the People for their judgement and approbation. T

tonius, acquires the temporary label of a good citizen, only to lapse before long, damned for a misguided policy of conciliati

um or dominatio that was too simple, too crude. It had all been heard before : but it might be hard to resist the deceitful ass

red, for the public good. Cicero had descended to that language years before when he explained the noble motives that induced

‘bring them to their right minds again’. Plancus was an adept. Years before in Caesar’s Civil War he had spontaneously offere

elop a programme for future action. Octavianus had no standing at all before the law, and Brutus was insecure. Antonius was pa

recognition of Caesar’s heir? Senators could recall how twenty years before a consul had secured the execution of Roman citiz

tly or not, that law may have permitted him to take over the province before the end of his consular year. Nothing extraordina

e authority of the Senate and the liberty of the People. Cicero spoke before the People as well as in the Curia. 1 There he bo

ry for thirty months after the Ides of March, but still with a future before him. 2 Ad fam. 10, 3, 3: ‘scis profecto nihil e

utus called him ‘homo ventosissimus’ (Ad fam. 11, 9, 1); Cicero years before ‘iste omnium turpissimus et sordidissimus’ (Ad At

pensation, he was to be allowed to stand for the consulship ten years before the legal age. Octavianus was now nineteen: he wo

e Senate enjoyed special discretionary powers. The Senate had granted before now imperiutm and the charge of a war to a man wh

spected, might show himself amenable to an accommodation. Seven years before a small minority dominant in the Senate broke off

. Family ties had prevailed against political hostility in civil wars before now when waged by Roman nobles. 3 Lepidus was dec

Bononia. There were many men alive who remembered Sulla. Often enough before now proscriptions had been the cause of secret ap

s now replenished to overflowing with the creatures of the Triumvirs: before long it was to number over a thousand. 5 Scorn an

r own survival. 4 Few men indeed who already belonged to the Senate before the outbreak of the Civil War achieve the highest

ntroduced after his death, most of them absent from historical record before 44 B.C. Ventidius and Carrinas lead the pack and

provide victims and vacancies. Persons of some permanence also emerge before long, rising to consular rank, P. Canidius Crassu

cribed family, and C. Sosius, perhaps a Picene, none of them heard of before Caesar’s death. 3 Another novelty was the mysteri

nd. 4 When the chief men surviving of the Republican cause were led before the victorious generals, Antonius, it is alleged,

8 It was a great victory. The Romans had never fought such a battle before . 9 The glory of it went to Antonius and abode wit

among them Ti. Cannutius, the tribune who had presented Caesar’s heir before the people when he marched upon Rome for the firs

hts slaughtered in solemn and religious ceremony on the Ides of March before an altar dedicated to Divus Julius. 3 Where Cae

st the domination of Antonius, deserted and proscribed his associates before a year had passed; again, at Perusia, he stamped

in to be worse than his defeated adversary and destined to follow him before long to destruction, while Rome and the Roman Peo

as not to wear them for long, for a new pair of consuls was installed before the end of the year, Balbus the millionaire from

aled the treachery of Salvidienus; who was arraigned for high treason before the Senate and condemned to death. 6 This was the

Picene, who had been led a captive by Pompeius Strabo fifty-one years before , celebrated in Rome his paradoxical triumph. 1

nce to suppress Caesar’s heir had been offered repeatedly three years before , by fortune, by Fulvia and by Salvidienus. Antoni

fect in 35 B.C.: perhaps he had been previously married to Scribonia, before 40 B.C. PageBook=>230 Octavianus now had a

eius might be able to influence Antonius or Lepidus: they had done so before . For Octavianus there subsisted the danger of a r

ious. When he arrived there awaited him a welcome, sincere as never before . Many no doubt in all classes regretted the son o

ed. 7 He had already usurped the practice of putting a military title before his own name, calling himself ‘Imperator Caesar’.

found holding military command under Caesar’s heir in the four years before Brundisium, unless Norbanus, the grandson of the

ime as Peducaeus; 6 and the obscure admiral M. Lurius, never heard of before and only once again, held a command in Sardinia.

visius Sabinus (cos. 39 B.C.), one of Caesar’s officers and a senator before the assassination, was a loyal Caesarian, at firs

, may have been sent by Antonius to help his ally and may have passed before long into the service of Octavianus, cf. M. A. Le

nius as did Bibulus and Atratinus. He is not attested with Octavianus before 36 B.C. The reason given for his change of allegi

ius 2, 81, 2; Virgil, Aen. 8, 684. 3 Salvidienus had been imperator before becoming a senator (BMC, R. Rep. 11, 407). Q. Lar

tisement that heralded an armed struggle. It had begun some six years before . 2 At first Octavianus was outshone. Antonius’

s. Those families were not extinct, but many years would have to pass before the Fasti of the consuls and the front ranks of t

the historian, imperatively recalling the men and acts of forty years before , civil strife and the levying of private armies,

the breaking of his empire into separate kingdoms; and they could set before them the heirs and the marshals of Caesar, owing

he passionate young lyric poets Calvus and Catullus, all died shortly before the outbreak of the Civil Wars. C. Helvius Cinna,

to be composing tragedies about the monarchs of mythical antiquity; 2 before that, however, he had earned the gratitude of two

Grave mutinies broke out in 36 and in 35 B.C.,4 harbingers of trouble before or after the contest with Antonius. Rome had witn

ng them to battle. It was already late in the season when he appeared before the walls of Phraaspa, dangerously late when, aft

ls of Asia, M. Cocceius Nerva between Plancus and Furnius. or perhaps before Plancus (cf. ILS 8780: Lagina in Caria); and afte

after Antonius. 3 Titius, proscribed and a pirate on his own account before joining Sex. Pompeius, shared the fortunes of his

even if he wished, the rank and attributes of a king or a god. Years before , in the company of his Roman wife, Antonius had b

ulnerable, Roman sentiment most easily to be worked and swayed. Years before , Cleopatra was of no moment whatsoever in the pol

ught. Octavianus moved first. Early in the year he delivered a speech before the Senate, criticizing the acts of Antonius in t

d the demand for their ratification to a document which he dispatched before the end of the year to the consuls designate, Cn.

ion for the young adventurer. Once again Octavianus lacked standing before the law, for the triumviral powers had come to an

ed the name, again offered to give up his powers, as he had two years before . 4 Furthermore, if the law and the constitution s

ared favourable: he was blamed for not exploiting the given advantage before his enemy created by propaganda and intimidation

f two rivals for supreme power. The elder, like Pompeius twenty years before , a great reputation but on the wane: nec repara

ve struggle, with each side so evenly balanced, leaving the rivals as before , rulers of a divided empire. The temporary seve

1 Cf. M. A. Levi, Ottaviano Capoparte 11, 153. 2 As seventeen years before , when Caesar’s invasion of Italy was imminent, ba

s’ side, Canidius, Sosius and Gellius Poplicola. It would not be long before the defection of the leaders, Roman senators or e

with the help of barbarian allies. 4 The battle of Actium was decided before it was fought. The true story is gone beyond re

in the last revels, the last illusory plans and the last despondency before death. After brief resistance Antonius was defeat

r than it had been after Pompeius’ ordering of the East, thirty years before . Precisely as in the system of Antonius, four men

perhaps it was Taurus. 4 But Messalla and Taurus departed to the West before long, to replace Carrinas and Calvisius in Gaul a

ed the Caesar of Trojan stock, destined himself for divinity, but not before his rule on earth has restored confidence between

fe in 30 B.C. (Dio 51, 19, 6), he seems to have made little use of it before 23. See further below, p. 336. 2 According to D

.) discovered the startling relevance of Livy 4, 19 f. All historians before Livy stated that Cornelius Cossus won the spolia

f the Triumvirate, even though that despotic office had expired years before : in law the only power to which he could appeal i

ing more. 1 For the rest, proconsuls were to govern the provinces, as before , but responsible only to the Senate; and Senate,

ther’s blood and himself killed by Roman senators, so one legend ran, before his assumption NotesPage=>313 1 Dio 53, 12

matched the rival leaders, made Aeneas’ guide exhort Caesar to disarm before Pompeius: tuque prior, tu parce, genus qui duci

fessed to resign provinces to the Senate; and proconsuls remained, as before , in charge of three military provinces. But Augus

ssed no fewer than ten triumphs of proconsuls, Caesarian or Antonian, before Actium, and six more since then. Some of these me

nd of Augustus. Passing through the south of Gaul he arrived in Spain before the end of the year. Two centuries had elapsed

andoned. There were less spectacular and more urgent tasks. Two years before , Amyntas, the ruler of Galatia, in the execution

e was closer kin. Octavia had been employed in her brother’s interest before and knew no policy but his. She had a son, C. Mar

er date, when Agrippa’s power had been accorded status and definition before the law. Agrippa was not, Agrippa never could be,

heir gains must have been very great: during Octavianus’ preparations before Actium special taxation provoked their resistance

Seneca, a wealthy man from Corduba, may have held a post of this kind before he devoted himself to the study of rhetoric. Pomp

as the son of the Mytilenean historian, was procurator in Asia; 7 and before long two men from Gallia Narbonensis acquired ‘eq

safe, reputable and attractive. Encouragement was not seldom required before the Roman knight was willing to exchange the secu

Lanuvium, provide senators for Rome there are remote towns of no note before or barely named, like Aletrium in the Hernican te

dius could never pretend to derive from pure Latin stock. 2 Above and before all stands that blatant prodigy of nomenclature,

3 These dim characters with fantastic names had never been heard of before in the Senate or even at Rome. They were the firs

(CIL ν, 3339); and Valerius Naso (CIL V, 3341) was of praetorian rank before A.D. 26 (Tacitus, Ann. 4, 56). Note also Sex. Pap

2 The dispensations accorded show that the low age limit was in force before 23 B.C.: it was probably established in 29-28 B.C

es, see CAH x, 163 f. PageBook=>371 Agrippa departed from Rome before the end of 23 B.C., removing from men’s eyes one

ved by violence. A certain Egnatius Rufus when aedile several years before had organized his private slaves and other suitab

years of his Principate recall the splendour of that last effulgence before the war of Pompeius and Caesar. He persevered for

when four or five large commands already existed. 4 It was some time before their number increased through division of provin

arshals, could show to their credit service in the military provinces before the consulate. Such were M. Lollius, M. Vinicius

n the Principate. The game of politics is played in the same arena as before ; the competitors for power and wealth require the

s both created new patrician houses and sought, like Sulla and Caesar before him, to revive the ancient nobility, patrician or

on which politicians and financiers had cast greedy eyes a generation before ; and in Egypt large estates were now owned and ex

. The novus homo Cicero had to wait until he became a senior consular before acquiring the coveted dignity of augur, which fel

ny more than twenty members. The sons of the slain would be available before long. But they would not suffice. Augustus at onc

tesPage=>387 1 Cf. above, p. 197. PageBook=>388 The years before Actium filled up the gaps. The Senate which accla

When Agrippa, deputy and son-in-law of the Princeps, died six years before , Augustus appeared to stand alone, sustaining the

also in high repute as a military man. 4 He may have served in Spain before Varro certainly had, and Varro, whom posterity kn

In this matter the Principate introduced no startling novelties. As before , senior centurions and equestrian officers were a

im an Alpine war, and Suetonius (De rhet. 6), describing a case tried before him when he was proconsul, at Mediolanium, are ve

service to Augustus and to the State. Among his achievements (perhaps before his consulate) was a campaign against the Marmari

at year the Pannonians and Dalmatians rose in revolt. As twenty years before in the Thracian War of Piso, so now the Balkan la

o marched across Germany from the Danube to the Elbe; 3 after him and before A.D. 4 are perhaps to be inserted the names of M.

victory to the construction of roads and public buildings. The years before the final struggle witnessed a grandiose spectacl

compelled to undertake four years later. Plancus and Lepidus resigned before the year was out. NotesPage=>402 1 Suetoni

íσɩ βoυλήματα ὑπoπτϵύϵταɩ. PageBook=>408 The taking of counsel before grave decisions was a habit ingrained in the Roma

p in touch with the Senate but who decided the business to be brought before that convenient and docile committee? The auctori

blic proposals of those momentous sessions had been shaped in private before being sponsored by eminent senators if possible b

the same year as Maecenas, Horace died: Virgil had gone eleven years before . In the last period of Augustus’ rule, literature

risis had supervened, at the very core of the party. Another followed before long, and Augustus loudly lamented the loss of hi

us Lepidus, cos. A.D. 6. PageBook=>421 But with Augustus dying before his sons attained their majority, a Council of Re

ment since Agrippa the vicegerent departed from the East twelve years before . In the meantime, able men had governed Syria the

king, Archelaus of Cappadocia, whose cause Tiberius had once defended before the Senate, was emboldened to studious neglect of

PageBook=>430 His diplomatic foresight was handsomely requited, before death by the governorship of Syria and after deat

with pointed contrast and vituperation of Lollius, dead twenty years before , but not forgotten. Lollius, he said, was respo

could be taken as quite reliable, the conspiracy of Paullus occurred before A.D. 8, perhaps in A.D. I, as Hohl argues (Klio x

ius. 2 The time for such exciting speculations had passed ten years before . The government party among the aristocracy old a

ame of Tiberius, renewing the allegiance sworn long ago to Octavianus before Actium. 3 This was the essence of the Principate.

ad Princeps for this emergency, a deed coolly decided eighteen months before . 1 Augustus was ruthless for the good of the Roma

patriotic poets, he had to go a long way back to find his favourites before the age of the Gracchi. PageNotes. 441 1 Virg

redress, into a crime. The wife, it is true, had no more rights than before . But the husband, after divorcing, could prosecut

of such perverse anachronisms. The land was more prosperous than ever before . Peace and security returned to the whole world.

added that the other was a Picene. That was no palliation. These men before all others should have provided the ‘Itala virtus

ists and natives who had received the Roman citizenship equally Roman before the law. Gades might export dancing-girls or a

n in vain: it was not one man’s idea, and the origins of it went back before Actium. The different classes in the Commonwealth

flocked to Rome from the towns of Italy such a concourse as had never before been seen. 8 This unique and spontaneous manifest

e the Senate debated on war and peace, where generals offered prayers before going to their armies or thanksgiving when return

ut the Dalmatians and Pannonians, incompletely conquered twenty years before , would have risen again at the earliest opportuni

ccording to Suetonius (Divus Aug. 19, 1) they were usually discovered before they had gone very far. 3 This is the argument

hole government. The major scandals, it is true., did not always come before the courts; but politics are probably at the bott

of history. Their power had passed to the Metelli. Both houses waned before the Julii and their allies. The Metelli had backe

r by Augustus, either to resplendent fortune or to a brief renascence before the end. Others that survived proscription and ba

n dynasty, was also the last of the Domitii Ahenobarbi, eight consuls before him in eight generations. 1 But Nero was not th

amilies related in some way or other to the reigning dynasty died out before long. The Claudii Marcelli and the Marcii Philipp

rmes LII (1917), 564 ff.) argues that it applies to families consular before A.D. 14 the year in which election by the people

f. Moreover, the secret struggle for power and distinction went on as before , enhanced by the rival ambitions of Seianus’ fact

public careers of illustrious men. 3 The theme of history remains, as before , ‘clarorum virorum facta moresque’. 4 Therein lay

a changed sides, passing to Antonius after Philippi and from Antonius before long to Octavianus. Along with Agrippa, Messalla

in of under the new dispensation. Pollio himself lived on to a decade before the death of Augustus, tough and lively to the en

olitical liberty, it could be maintained, was doomed if not dead long before that. Pollio knew the bitter truth about the last

a res publica. Selfish ambition and personal loyalties must give way before civic duty and national patriotism. With the Prin

s there need for orators any more, for long speeches in the Senate or before the People, when one man had the supreme decision

e provided the middle way between these extremes. 4 It was not long before the Principate gave birth to its own theory, and

C. that Augustus was acclaimed pater patriae. Horace hints at it long before : hie ames dici pater atque princeps. 4 The notion

of a frail life, Augustus composed his Autobiography. Other generals before him, like Sulla and Caesar, had published the nar