eader or subservient agents of arbitrary power. For that reason ‘Dux’ became ‘Princeps’. He did not cease to be Imperator Caes

overned provinces; new-comers to the senatorial aristocracy, they all became deeply imbued with the traditional spirit of that

aughters princesses. Marriage with a well-connected heiress therefore became an act of policy and an alliance of powers, more

use of this weapon in the interests of reform or of personal ambition became a mark of the politicians who arrogated to themse

n nobility in the Marian faction were the Junii and the Domitii,6 who became firm supporters of the new order. 6 NotesPage=&

The Metelli prevailed by their mass and by their numbers. Their sons became consuls by prerogative or inevitable destiny; and

nce with Sulla. Q. Metellus Pius led an army to victory for Sulla and became consul with him in 80 B.C. The Dictator himself h

nt by far is that enigmatic faction soon to be led by a man who never became consul. Its origins lie at the very heart of Roma

60 or 59 (Appian, Syr. 51); and in 59 P. Cornelius Lentulus Spinther became proconsul of Hispania Citerior, with help from Ca

o Cornelia, daughter of that P. Scipio who, adopted by Metellus Pius, became Q. Metellus Scipio. P. Scipio’s mother was the da

potism. As the soldiers were the proletariat of Italy, the revolution became social as well as political. The remedy was sim

asts should surrender their armies and save the Commonwealth. Curio became a popular hero, and the People was incited agains

as consul, perhaps with help from Pompeius. Signs of an accommodation became perceptible. Despite five consulates in twenty-th

f Caesar spread rumours to discredit the living Dictator: Caesar dead became a god and a myth, passing from the realm of histo

. PageBook=>056 At the moment it was intolerable: the autocrat became impatient, annoyed by covert opposition, petty cr

ligarchs. Catullus and Calvus were dead: their friends and companions became Caesarians. 1 He won over many former opponents,

d repressed frauds in the waterworks at Rome, composing a memoir that became a classic in the administration of the Empire. 3

us, legate of Caesar in the Gallic and Civil Wars (P-W IV A, 849 f.), became censor in 42 B.C. along with the consular C. Anto

d or ungrateful: yet of the whole number, at least eight subsequently became consuls. Only two of the legates present or past

t and cultivated natives of dynastic families, Hellenized before they became Roman, whose citizenship, so far from being the r

ceived a Roman colony at Narbo as early as 118 B.C., before all Italy became Roman, was also subjected to casual settlement of

Senate. His young nephew, courageous and proud, cruel and luxurious, became quaestor in 44 B.C.2 Of Caesar’s partisans, equ

rothers Caepasii, ‘ignoti homines et repentini small-town orators who became quaestors (Cicero, Brutus 242), C. Billienus, ‘ho

ondemned soon after (Pro Piancio 75), despite Cicero’s defence, later became praetor, CIL I2, 819.1278. PageBook=>082 r

g that Brutus, himself of Tarquin blood, who expelled the tyrants and became the first consul of the Republic. 4 Pride kept th

Page=>085 1 Pliny, NH 7, 136 (a Tusculan consul who deserted and became consul at Rome in the same year). On the Plautii,

s on Sulla’s side at the capture of the town of Pompeii: his two sons became praetors at Rome. 1 A certain Statius fought brav

ν βoνλ∊ντή⍴ιoν ἀναĸ∊λ∊ƞµένoς. No evidence, however, precisely when he became a senator. 3 ILS 8888. Cf. above, p. 28, n. 1.

30; Münzer, P-W III, 1612. C. Carrinas, the son of the Marian leader, became cos. suff. in 43. 5 W. Schulze, LE, 268, cf. th

1 Nor were the veterans to be won merely by material advantage. They became truculent and tumultuous. Not without excuse: the

letter of flattery to Dolabella, Ad fam. 9, 14. The sagacious Atticus became impatient of the praising of Dolabella, Ad Att. 1

poned revenge. Though able beyond expectation as a politician, he now became bewildered, impatient and tactless. His relations

y of M. Agrippa, friends or enemies have nothing to say: even when it became safe to inquire or publish, nothing at all could

eius, from honest persuasion or for political advancement, afterwards became more conservative when he gained the consulate an

ed and kept from allying himself with Antonius; 3 in July, Octavianus became a fact and a force in politics. Events were mov

humour, or by skill at retaliation. Certain charges, believed or not, became standard jests, treasured by friends as well as e

as a mask for personal domination. The names of good citizens and bad became partisan appellations; wealth and the power to do

y-denominations prevailed entirely, and in the end success or failure became the only criterion of wisdom and of patriotism. 4

augurated under the auspices of concord and appeasement. It therefore became a reproach to be ‘afraid of peace’, to be ‘enemie

5 they might impair the resolution of the patriotic front. 6 Then war became just and heroic: rather than seek any accommodati

e against Antonius and refusing to recognize the Triumvirate. He then became involved in war with T. Sextius, the governor of

atius, the octogenarian Samnite, who survived the Bellum Italicum and became a Roman senator, now perished for his wealth; 5 s

n., p. 158 H; Digest 1, 14, 3. A certain Barbarius Philippus actually became praetor (Dig. ib.): not to be identified with M.

4. PageBook=>201 for victory or defeat in the eastern lands, became the proverbial trio among the novi homines of the

now smiled upon the avid, the brutal and the unscrupulous: even youth became a commendation, when possession of neither tradit

ed with ruffians, the consulate, once the reward of civic virtue, now became the recompense of craft or crime. ‘Non mos, non

be the issue of a marriage contracted as late as 38 B.C. A P. Scipio became consul suffect in 35 B.C.: perhaps he had been pr

diers. In Sicily NotesPage=>232 1 Appian, BC 5, 139, 579. Libo became cos. ord. in 34. 2 Ib. 5, 144, 598 ff. 3 Dio

anish provinces after Perusia; 4 and T. Peducaeus, otherwise unknown, became suffect consul in 35 B.C.5 For the rest, his ea

aesarian oligarchy grew up, while the party of Antonius, by contrast, became more and more Pompeian. That was not the only a

r yet, with equal power and arms, in full confidence. The young man became formidable. As a demagogue he had nothing to lear

Meanwhile, the party grew steadily in strength. In 33 B.C. Octavianus became consul for the second time, and his influence, no

, the Aemilii and the Scipiones. In this year the admiral Q. Laronius became consul; the other six were commended by no known

e dead. The controversy about Cato began it. Then Caesar the Dictator became a subject of literary warfare, for a time at leas

e character of the Caesarian writer. 3 In Rome of the Triumvirs men became intensely conscious of history, not merely of rec

r lapsed, when cities or individuals armed for protection, brigandage became prevalent: the retainers of an owner of land, onc

thirty-seven per cent, of the whole army. 2 Q. Dellius subsequently became an historian (Strabo, p. 523; Plutarch, Antonius

nths passed, however, and the crisis in his relations with Octavianus became so acute that Antonius instructed Canidius to bri

deserted to Antonius. 1 His father-in-law L. Scribonius Libo at once became consul (34 B.C.), but seems to have lapsed from p

ic faction-leaders based his rule on personal allegiance. Dux partium became princeps civitatis. 4 Nor is surmise entirely v

vish wealth of convincing and artistic detail. More than that, Actium became the contest of East and West personified, the bir

ctory he spared all Roman citizens who asked to be spared. 4 dementia became one of his cardinal virtues; and the historian Ve

given in marriage to Juba, the prince of the Numidian royal stock who became King of Mauretania. Such was the fate of Egypt’

place Carrinas and Calvisius in Gaul and Spain. 5 In Syria a safe man became proconsul, NotesPage=>302 1 e.g. Virgil, A

For a generation, all parties had triven for peace: once attained, it became the spoil and prerogative of the victors. Alrea

perial NotesPage=>303 1 Appian (BC 4, 51, 221) records that he became governor of Syria. About the date, no evidence. T

ting in value. The beneficial working of the rich treasure from Egypt became everywhere apparent. 3 Above all, security of ten

nights, knights themselves and finally Thracian and Illyrian brigands became emperors of Rome. Excited by the ambition of mi

ost a million sesterces. 5 During the Triumviral period an ex-slave became military tribune. Horace is ferociously indignant

itary knight found ample occupation and increased rewards, as service became a career, with a hierarchy and with graded honour

A.D. 6), Coponius, a Roman knight of a respectable family from Tibur, became its first governor; 1 and in a time of emergency

than a knight in standing, a citizen of Volsinii in Etruria but Seius became Prefect of the Guard and Viceroy of Egypt; he mar

lus, of Campanian and Samnite stock, after equestrian service at last became quaestor. 1 Contemporary and parallel are two oth

knight, sprung from ancient and dynastic stock in Etruscan Ferentum, became a senator under Augustus. 4 P. Vitellius from Nuc

he Sabine land, served in the army as an equestrian officer:6 his son became a senator, his daughter married the tax-gatherer

the less, in the ordinances of Augustus as finally established, a man became eligible to assume the quaestorship in his twenty

us for Marcellus. 2 Distances were preserved. The young nobilis often became consul at the prescribed term, but the son of a R

heir birthright. So Iullus Antonius, the younger son of the Triumvir, became consul. But the consulate did not matter so much.

o marriages: from the first, C. Marcellus and two Marcellas, who soon became available for matrimonial alliances, from the sec

Nobles and above all patricians had a long start. M. Aemilius Lepidus became a pontifex at the age of twenty-five:1 he was a p

five:1 he was a patrician. The novus homo Cicero had to wait until he became a senior consular before acquiring the coveted di

ustius Crispus. The great minister also adopted his friend’s son, who became in time the husband of two princesses of the bloo

e Guard and chief favourite and minister of Tiberius. Seianus himself became the leader of a political faction. NotesPage=&g

cupation, save a proconsulate, usually brief in tenure. The consulars became ‘senior statesmen’, decorative, quarrelsome and a

length, was the illustrious L. Calpurnius Piso, with whom the office became a standing institution. 2 In these ways, by his

e practice of comitial legislation soon decays: senatus consulta then became common, gradually acquiring force of law. Yet onc

time went on, knights who had served in the provinces as procurators became available above all the Prefects of Egypt, a land

h the growth to manhood of Gaius and Lucius, the position of Tiberius became irksome; and some spoke of estrangement from his

ved special dispensations and early distinction, it is true. Tiberius became consul at the age of twenty-nine but that was aft

hip of his mother with Livia brought promotion and a career. Silvanus became consul along with Augustus in 2 B.C. A political

e firm avoidance of desperate ambition or party spirit. Piso’s family became related to the Crassi, an alliance which brought

ok=>428 The position of Tiberius had long been anomalous. It now became doubtful and perilous. In the next year his tribu

he succession was publicly regulated as far as was possible. Tiberius became co-regent, in virtue of a law conferring on him p

more often heard in public than was expedient for honest women: they became politicians and patrons of the arts. They were fo

uties to the community. Like the Princeps himself, the war profiteers became respectable. ‘Fortuna non mutât genus’, so Hora

emagogue Clodius was in his pay. The Dictatorship of Caesar at once became an object of lampoons. More deadly, however, was

of history’ in a vivid and convincing form. An excellent source soon became available, no less than the biographical memoir i

arly career of Pompeius, controverting Sallustius. When Pompeius thus became a respectable figure, so did Octavianus. It was t

to the military leader in the War of Actium: it did not lapse when he became a magistrate at Rome and in relation to the laws

s not there. After the example set by Caesar the Dictator, clemency became a commodity widely advertised by his successors,

s of politics. It is in no way surprising that Pollio, like Stendhal, became the fanatical exponent of a hard, dry and unemoti

o, he turned with distaste from the wars and politics of his time and became a historian. Both writers had practical experienc

nition and love: exstinctus amabitur idem. 2 This moral platitude became a wild paradox under the Empire. Augustus’ memory

in noble families, showing their last consuls in the age of Pompeius, became extinct in the Civil Wars. Some, it is true, espe

marriage to Aemilia Lepida, Ann. 3, 23. PageBook=>493 His son became consul under Tiberius, a great orator and a man o

er, in prestige, or in family to the Princeps. Allies and enemies now became involved in the most fantastic relationships. The

the end, by posthumous and ironical justice, Antonius and his admiral became the ancestors of emperors. As time went on, the J

under the Principate. M. Junius Silanus, grandson of the renegade who became consul in 25 B.C., married Aemilia Lepida, the da

e domestic dramas of Augustus’ Principate. Before long, however, they became entangled, not only among themselves, as when a P

amilies, as befitted the dual composition of the governing oligarchy, became involved in the family history, court scandals or

lar Passienus, adopted by the Augustan secretary of state Sallustius, became a great courtier, an artist in adulation and the

conduct of a successful prosecution. Under the Empire the law courts became less political, justice less a matter of partisan

he aristocracy at least, counterbalanced other benefits. The Senate became a high court of justice and the Princeps’ own jur

ed by any faction and any government: it soon went the way of Pax and became Libertas Augusta. Pompeius Magnus was hardly wo

the Senate. Yet while this process was going on, the Republic itself became the object of a sentimental cult, most fervently

s not long before the Principate gave birth to its own theory, and so became vulnerable to propaganda. Augustus claimed to hav

l plea and political propaganda in the military plebiscite of 32 B.C. became a reality under the Principate Augustus represent

bloodshed. But his potentia was transmuted into auctoritas, and ‘dux’ became beneficent, ‘dux bonus’. Ovid perhaps went too fa

k=>521 His rule was personal, if ever rule was, and his position became ever more monarchic. Yet with all this, Augustus