influence of the historians Sallust, Pollio and Tacitus, all of them Republican in sentiment. Hence a deliberately critical attit

be discovered in the character and opinions of the historian Pollio—a Republican , but a partisan of Caesar and of Antonius. This a

es to the supreme example and guidance of Münzer: but for his work on Republican family-history, this book could hardly have exist

despotism was the price, it was not too high: to a patriotic Roman of Republican sentiments even submission to absolute rule was a

stance. Contemporaries were not deceived. The convenient revival of Republican institutions, the assumption of a specious title,

torians to fancy that the Principate of Caesar Augustus was genuinely Republican in spirit and in practice a modern and academic f

. A section of it was so written by C. Asinius Pollio, in a Roman and Republican spirit. That was tradition, inescapable. The Roma

1 Pollio, the partisan of Caesar and of Antonius, was a pessimistic Republican and an honest man. Of tough Italic stock, hating

iL, Supplementband xxii (1896), 557 ff. PageBook=>007 from the Republican and Antonian side. The adulatory or the uncritica

r democracy, an oligarchy lurks behind the façade; and Roman history, Republican or Imperial, is the history of the governing clas

esided in the suburban vicinity of Rome, contemplating the decline of Republican government and hastening its end. Ahenobarbus h

shame for his own disloyalty: he composed a pamphlet in honour of the Republican who died true to his principles and to his class.

peninsula could transform their internal economy. As at Rome under a Republican constitution, so in the municipia, the aristocrac

rents’ from the local aristocracies. 2 The degree of sympathy for the Republican cause defies any close estimate: it may not be me

viros soles appellare. ’ PageBook=>102 The manoeuvres of the Republican partisans excited disquiet among those responsibl

pproval. 3 Antonius was apprised. When he requested that the bands of Republican partisans be dissolved, Brutus agreed. 4 Demons

resourceful politician, presenting a double front, both Caesarian and Republican , and advancing steadily. To what end? Primacy in

the primacy of Antonius during his consulate was the free working of Republican institutions. An innovation indeed: it had seldom

ast of events would his adopted son have succeeded in playing off the Republican cause against the Caesarian leaders, survived the

the classic scene of the Lupercalia. 3 He was promptly thwarted by a Republican or NotesPage=>116 1 Namely, the two consul

better opportunity, he derived encouragement from the absence of any Republican manifestations of note during the Ludi Apollinare

envy of Antonius: through them he might hope to influence neutral or Republican elements. The supreme art of politics is patent t

he young revolutionary needed an army in the first place, after that, Republican allies and constitutional backing. He would then

stpone the avenging of Caesar until he was strong enough, built up by Republican help, to betray the Republicans. The calculation

th leisure for intrigue and diplomacy. With Antonius out of the way a Republican faction, relying on the support of anomalous alli

ise of the author’s talent and a pamphlet traducing the memory of the Republican martyr. Through emissaries and friends he induced

the poet to dinner. 3 Freedom of speech was an essential part of the Republican virtue of libertas, to be regretted more than pol

g it to be something roughly equivalent to the spirit and practice of Republican government. Exactly what corresponded to the Repu

d practice of Republican government. Exactly what corresponded to the Republican constitution was, however, a matter not of legal

lend ready aid to the suppression of Antonius, to the revival of the Republican and Pompeian cause. In the provinces of the Wes

ar, a wit and an honest man, a friend of Caesar and of Antonius but a Republican , Pollio found his loyalties at variance or out of

any party. He knew about them all. The pessimistic and clear-sighted Republican felt no confidence in a cause championed by Cicer

s a fundamental principle, whether democratic or aristocratic, of the Republican state. 1 That was not the only irregularity pra

aesar, the uncle of Antonius, an aged senator of blameless repute and Republican sentiments. Pansa supported him. Antonius was not

s was not confirmed until more than two months had elapsed. For the Republican cause, victory now seemed assured in the end. Con

eir palpable community of interest, hardened by the renascence of the Republican and Pompeian cause, was so strong that the loyal

acquiesced. One of his lieutenants, a certain Juventius Laterensis, a Republican and an honest man, fell upon his sword. Lepidus n

e constitutional cause now that it had become flagrantly Pompeian and Republican . 3 The consulate lay vacant but not unclaimed.

e resolute Cassius. 2 In any event, principles and honour commanded a Republican to resist the worst excesses of civil war. Lepidu

ract from a letter written by Cicero to Octavianus, the Roman and the Republican lost all patience. NotesPage=>170 1 The ev

judgement; and he had already secured a guarantee for the event of a Republican victory by protecting the mother of Brutus. 4 Att

t protest. 9 Intimidated by a deputation of Roman ladies with a great Republican personage for leader, the daughter of the orator

geBook=>199 further strengthened by the arrival of miscellaneous Republican or Pompeian nobles, old and young. 1 The Caesar

or Antonius, he was held up at Brundisium by a hostile navy under the Republican admiral Staius Murcus. When Octavianus arrived, t

rinces of the East. Wisdom after the event scores easy triumphs the Republican NotesPage=>203 1 Compare Brutus’ own remar

ion was desperate, for on the day of the first Battle of Philippi the Republican admirals in the Ionian Sea intercepted and destro

pay for his folly in the end. 4 When the chief men surviving of the Republican cause were led before the victorious generals, An

rom giving way, alleged instructions from M. Antonius, and prosecuted Republican propaganda. Officers intervened and called a conf

opportunity not the only time. A concerted effort of the Antonian and Republican forces in Italy and on the seas adjacent would ha

h the defeated generals Furnius, Tisienus and a number of Antonian or Republican partisans, the consul threw himself into the stro

of Octavianus. Then all is a blank, save that he negotiated with the Republican admiral Ahenobarbus, whose fleet controlled the A

5, 52, 216. PageBook=>215 merely championed his cause and won Republican support, but even raised civil war with a fair pr

politics. Octavianus the adventurer, after achieving recognition with Republican help against the domination of Antonius, deserted

former public enemy, was now invading Italy with what remained of the Republican armed forces. His admiral was Ahenobarbus, Cato’s

as able to win over more and more of the leading senators, Caesarian, Republican or neutral. 2 For the present, however, no indica

l security he had recently put to death on the charge of conspiracy a Republican admiral, Staius Murcus. 3 Defeated at Pharsalus

p-brother was with him, and Libo his wife’s father. 2 Likewise an odd Republican or two and certain of the assassins, for whom the

seemed for a time that the young Pompeius might be a champion of the Republican cause. But it was only a name that the son had in

one so before. For Octavianus there subsisted the danger of a revived Republican coalition under Antonius, Lepidus and Pompeius, b

lippi and of Perusia were more amicably disposed to Antonius; and his Republican following, already considerable, was augmented wh

vus and Catullus, and in speeches and poetry reproduced some of their Republican vigour and independence, little of their grace. H

may be inferred, was to demonstrate how rotten and fraudulent was the Republican government that ruled at Rome between the two Dic

the Liberators. He fought at Philippi, for the Republic but not from Republican convictions: it was but the accident of his prese

l satire or free attack upon the existing order in state and society. Republican libertas, denied to the nobiles of Rome, could no

in repute Ahenobarbus stood next to Antonius in the new Caesarian and Republican coalition. Another kinsman of Cato was to be foun

ley party of Antonius with a variegated past, Caesarian, Pompeian and Republican , bound by personal loyalty or family ties rather

on to be requited with the consulate which Antonius should have held. Republican freedom of speech now revelled in a brief renasce

read missive. They were followed by more than three hundred senators, Republican or Antonian. 3 NotesPage=>278 1 Dio 49, 41

a generation that could recall the misrepresentation and invective of Republican politics to say nothing of the recent ‘constituti

of Cleopatra, refusing even to salute her with the title of ‘Queen’:2 Republican principle, or rather family tradition and the pro

ined, however, some to the very end. Most significant is the strong Republican following of one already denounced as an enemy of

ghly variegated. There was scarce a man among the consulars but had a Republican —or Antonian—past behind him. Treachery destroys b

uler could have faith in men like Plancus and Titius. Ahenobarbus the Republican leader was dead; but Messalla and Pollio carried

scordances in a fraudulently harmonious account of the restoration of Republican government at Rome. The denial to Crassus of th

rtainly Pompeian rather than Caesarian, just as its avowed ideals are Republican , not absolutist. Seeking to establish continuity

nd to others that the new order was the best state of all, more truly Republican than any Republic, for it derived from consensus

zens, for it asserted the sacred rights of property; it was Roman and Republican , for power rested upon the laws, with every class

t has been maintained in recent times that Augustus not only employed Republican language but intended that the Republican constit

Augustus not only employed Republican language but intended that the Republican constitution should operate unhampered—and that i

cy was hatched or at least discovered. The author was Fannius Caepio, Republican in family and sentiment. 6 PageNote. 333 1 Na

heart and core of the party. Fannius was a ‘bad man’ to begin with, a Republican . Not so Murena. Long ago Salvidienus the marshal

in the supreme magistracy, Augustus appointed Cn. Calpurnius Piso, a Republican of independent and recalcitrant temper. Hitherto

estius, like the choice of Piso, will attest, not the free working of Republican institutions, but the readiness of old Republican

the free working of Republican institutions, but the readiness of old Republican adherents to rally to the new régime, for diverse

ullus Aemilius Lepidus and L. Munatius Plancus) announced a return to Republican practices and a beginning of social and moral ref

d their privileges and their power. M. Vipsanius Agrippa was a better Republican than all the descendants of consuls his ideal of

r the Principate. 2 Dio 51, 4, 6. PageBook=>351 No hint of a Republican reaction here. The senators knew the true purpose

ion here. The senators knew the true purpose of Augustus’ adoption of Republican forms and phrases, the full irony in the ostensib

race himself was only one generation better. Here again, no return to Republican prejudices of birth. In the Principate, sons of f

presentative of Rome and of Italy. In form, the constitution was less Republican and less ‘democratic’, for eligibility to office

nder what conditions they were liberated from control and restored to Republican freedom. That there was change and development

ity through Augustus’ continuous tenure, and regaining its annual and Republican dignity, it now seemed worth having to the aristo

inius. These three categories of civic excellence were traditional, Republican and openly advertised as the justification for en

ps seized control of all games and largesse. The descendants of great Republican houses still retained popularity with the plebs o

∈υ. 2 Dio 56, 28, 2. 3 Tiberius’ practice was different, and more Republican ’super veteres amicos ac familiares viginti sibi

at was much more than a contradiction of the constitutional usage and Republican language of the Principate: it revolted the genui

ge and Republican language of the Principate: it revolted the genuine Republican feelings and good sense of a Roman aristocrat. Il

r ends, why not the Monarchy? The most sincere or most narrow type of Republican politician derived commonly from a more recent no

, whose writings breathe the authentic spirit of the Republic and the Republican virtues, were all sons of Roman knights, of munic

aesar and Pompeius, had fallen at Pharsalus; his father was the great Republican admiral. The Aemilii perpetuated their old poli

ity for the Republic. 5 Cn. Calpurnius Piso (cos. 23 B.C.) had been a Republican but rallied to Augustus; his son, a man of marked

epublican but rallied to Augustus; his son, a man of marked and truly Republican independence of temper, enjoyed the trust and the

f the head of the Claudian house. 5 Tiberius, who honoured, if ever a Republican noble did, the sacred claims of fides, remembered

e friend of Brutus and of Antonius. 1 Tiberius did not forget his own Republican and Pompeian antecedents. Like the departure, t

-staged deception imposed by Augustus, the least honest and the least Republican of men, preyed upon the conscience of Tiberius an

attack, namely the publication of books extolling Cato, the martyr of Republican liberty. The praise or blame of the dead rather t

s, indeed, their outlook was notably old-fashioned and traditional. Republican sympathies were openly expressed. From his father

eastern lands. The language of that ‘Graeca adulatio’ so loathsome to Republican sentiment becomes more and more lavish and ornate

nions. Certain of the towns of Italy and the West took pride in their Republican traditions. On the whole, a harmless practice. Ye

o dangerous as Labienus and Cassius, or possessing fewer enemies, the Republican historian A. Cremutius Cordus, whose vivid pages

under the garb of piety to his ancestors, encouraged an Antonian and Republican revival. The condemned works of Cordus, Severus a

t. Juvenal derives his names and examples from the descendants of the Republican nobility but not the living. Few of them, indeed,

. 1 Tiberius Caesar hated the monarchy it meant the ruin of Roman and Republican virtue. The Principate was not a monarchy in name

th the end of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, the Augustan as well as the Republican nobility seemed to have run its course. Yet the

y province, Hispania Citerior (Tarraconensis), to a descendant of the Republican nobility and a loyal servant of the government, S

he murderous tyranny of the Julio-Claudians has all but exhausted the Republican and the Augustan nobility, there are still on the

ublican and the Augustan nobility, there are still on the Fasti three Republican nobiles and some seven or eight men sprung from T

of the schematic contrast which virtuous and pushing novi homines of Republican days were in the habit of drawing between their o

he nobiles that moves Tacitus to the sublimest indignation. Tiberius, Republican and Pompeian in his loyalties, himself a represen

iental monarch. History has preserved a characteristic remark of this Republican misanthrope. 1 Succeeding ages looked back with

s begun. Like Sallustius and Pollio, the senator Tacitus, who admired Republican virtue but believed in ordered government, wrote

iples:3 but the Roman knight who filled his house with the statues of Republican heroes was a snob as well as a careerist. 4 The

cient eloquence could not have the advantage both ways, enjoying both Republican liberty and the benefits of an ordered state. Nor

mbre theme of the Annals. As a Roman historian, Tacitus had to be a Republican : in his life and in his politics he was a monarch

osition of certain candidates for martyrdom, who might be admired for Republican independence of spirit but not for political wisd

Antistius Labeo, perishes at Philippi, 228. Antistius Labeo, M., Republican and honest lawyer, 375; his acts of independence,

23, 436 f., 496 f. Calpurnii Bibuli, 492. Calpurnius Bibulus, L., Republican and Antonian, 198, 206, 222, 231; governor of Syr

22 B.C.), 64, 339, 423, 491, 512. Claudius Nero, Ti., Caesarian and Republican , 69, 98; in the Bellum Perusinum, 210, 383; in Gr

198, 202, 206, 210, 212, 213, 216, 225, 227, 230, 241, 264, 405; as a Republican party leader, 268, 281, 495; in 32 B.C., 276, 278

, 469. Fannius, C., adherent of Sex. Pompeius, 228. Fannius Caepio, Republican and conspirator, 333 f. Faunus, alleged ancestor

period, 250 f.; suitably to be written by senators, 5, 251, 420, 485; Republican tone of, 5, 420; preoccupation with ‘clari viri’,

11 f., 482 f. Jus Italicum, 367. Juventius Laterensis, M., honest Republican , 179. Kings, of Rome, 68, 58 f., 84 f., 365.

8, 379, 423, 425. Valerius Messalla Corvinus, M. (cos. 31 B.C.), as a Republican , 198; an Antonian, 206, 222; joins Octavianus, 23