od witnessed a violent transference of power and of property; and the Principate of Augustus should be regarded as the consolidati

plains what is said about Cicero and about Livy. Yet, in the end, the Principate has to be accepted, for the Principate, while abo

out Livy. Yet, in the end, the Principate has to be accepted, for the Principate , while abolishing political freedom, averts civil

st of the Roman historians began his Annals with the accession to the Principate of Tiberius, stepson and son by adoption of Augus

elements in the party of Augustus and in the political system of the Principate had already taken shape, firm and manifest, as ea

ution of property by a revolutionary leader. The happy outcome of the Principate might be held to justify, or at least to palliate

man political life has sometimes induced historians to fancy that the Principate of Caesar Augustus was genuinely Republican in sp

story and is the prime cause of many pertinacious delusions about the Principate of Augustus. Nor is the Augustan period as straig

ation into despotism; in his Annals he sought to demonstrate that the Principate of the Julii and Claudii was a tyranny, tracing y

rs through the period of the Triumvirate to the War of Actium and the Principate of Augustus: the work appears to have ended when

tempt to record the story of the Roman Revolution and its sequel, the Principate of Caesar Augustus, in a fashion that has now bec

rule of Augustus was the rule of a party, and in certain aspects his Principate was a syndicate. In truth, the one term presuppos

nd the most arduous of the achievements in foreign policy of the long Principate of Augustus. But Octavianus’ time was short, his

f East and West personified, the birth-legend in the mythology of the Principate . On the one side stood Caesar’s heir with the Sen

re armed proconsuls are definitely attested in the early years of the Principate . Nor is the information provided by the contempor

purpose well enough. It is, therefore, no paradox to discover in the Principate of Augustus both the institutions and the phraseo

arded as a tract for the times, recommending the establishment of the Principate of Pompeius, and foreshadowing the ideal state th

mpeius, and foreshadowing the ideal state that was realized under the Principate of Augustus. 1 That is an anachronism: the theori

er, that full lists of provincial governors in the early years of the Principate of Augustus are not to be had. 3 Namely M. Acil

e been the last, and was certainly the most critical, in all the long Principate of Augustus. 3 From a constitutional crisis, in

shed. The Revolution had triumphed and had produced a government, the Principate assumed form and definition. If an exact date mus

=>340 The life of the Princeps was frail and precarious, but the Principate was now more deeply rooted, more firmly embedded.

mentions Agrippa’s ‘praegrave servitium’ cf. Tiberius’ view about the Principate , Suetonius, Tib. 24, 2: ‘miseram et onerosam iniu

Reichsteilung im Imperium Romanum (1930). PageBook=>346 To the Principate of Augustus there could be no hereditary successi

e, his own justification. Continuity, however, and designation to the Principate was in fact achieved by adoption and by the grant

ould be required in the capital. It might be desirable to convert the Principate into a partnership, devising a vicegerent for the

at matter, few Triumviral consuls even are at all prominent under the Principate . 2 Dio 51, 4, 6. PageBook=>351 No hint o

ecompense the estates of the vanquished now profited further from the Principate land rose rapidly in value. 3 But the new order

ect their fortunes. So far indeed from there being reaction under the Principate , the gains of the Revolution were to be consolida

nk in two or three generations, according to the social system of the Principate ; and senators were eligible for the purple. The p

onal assertion, not restricted to any one class of the wealthy in the Principate of Augustus. None the less, Isidorus was able to

tter. Here again, no return to Republican prejudices of birth. In the Principate , sons of freedmen soon occupy military posts; 7 a

Salvidienus and Cornelius Gallus had been praefecti fabrum. Under the Principate , however, the position soon declines in importanc

ministrative posts in Rome created by Augustus towards the end of his Principate . The praefectus annonae had charge of the food-su

ague of Quirinius in 12 B.C.4 But after that the middle period of the Principate of Augustus shows very few new names, save for a

tin letters, had sent its sons to Caesar’s Senate. Quite early in the Principate five or six men appear to have begun their senato

whole social and administrative hierarchy in the first century of the Principate until they set a provincial emperor upon the thro

to assign to Augustus alone the advancement of novi homines under the Principate ? That is to leave out the influence of his adhere

from the firm order that had prevailed in the first four years of the Principate . Riots in Rome could not imperil peace so long as

ars following are to be discovered the aristocrats who rallied to the Principate , receiving the consulate at the earliest age perm

agistracy of the Roman Republic. The Fasti in the middle years of his Principate recall the splendour of that last effulgence befo

mains to indicate the ostensible qualification for ennoblement in the Principate and the real working of patronage. Under the Re

were also deeper and better reasons for political advancement in the Principate . The game of politics is played in the same arena

cannot show consuls now or miss a generation, emerging later. In the Principate of Augustus a Sulla, a Metellus, a Scaurus and ot

consulate. 4 With so few suffect consulates in the early years of the Principate , competition was acute and intense. The consular

shed practice of balloting for provinces. The lot was retained in the Principate for the choice of the proconsuls of the public pr

at all, certain of the military proconsuls in the early years of the Principate , such as Balbus in Africa, P. Silius and M. Vinic

action from the beginning: active, though studiously masked under the Principate of Augustus, they grow with the passage of dynast

hat led to wealth and honours in the imperial system, implicit in the Principate of Augustus, but not always clearly discernible i

hey too were drawn from his partisans. For the present, peace and the Principate were thus safeguarded. But the mere maintenance o

ut for the West without delay; and of the first fourteen years of his Principate the greater part was spent abroad, in Spain (27-2

reatly augmented the province of Macedonia. In the first years of the Principate the imperial frontier on the north-east consisted

stepsons. Of the great plebeian marshals commanding armies under the Principate of Augustus only one besides Agrippa, namely M. L

mmonly reckoned as praetorian. Yet on three occasions at least in the Principate of Augustus, Galatia was governed by legates of c

llyricum and the Rhine army had been divided in the last years of the Principate , there existed seven military commands held by im

tiquary, was no doubt a competent administrator. In this matter the Principate introduced no startling novelties. As before, sen

PageBook=>397 But even so, in the fully developed system of the Principate , the previous experience as military tribune and

becoming patroni (ILS 6087, c. 130). The central government under the Principate , however, was strong enough to do without such a

S XVN (1927), 47 f. PageBook=>407 When he comes to narrate the Principate of Augustus, Cassius Dio complains that the task

ed to justify the various bodies of advisers that are attested in his Principate . No sooner was the Free State restored than Augus

ius Calvinus, the oldest surviving consular in the early years of the Principate . 4 NotesPage=>411 1 Observe the raising of

psed he might designate, but he could not appoint, his heir. When the Principate was first transmitted to a successor, that person

anxious thought to the problem of providing for the succession to the Principate or rather, for the continuity of the government.

tradiction of the constitutional usage and Republican language of the Principate : it revolted the genuine Republican feelings and

so (cos. 15 B.C.) occupied rank and eminence with the foremost in the Principate of Augustus, though not seeking closer relationsh

Rome due provision had been made for the peaceful transmission of the Principate . Seius Strabo was Prefect of the Guard, C. Turran

n long ago to Octavianus before Actium. 3 This was the essence of the Principate . Certain formalities remained. On April 3rd of

erence of the supreme power. As in 27 B.C., it was necessary that the Principate should be conferred by consent upon the first cit

expedited: there were awkward moments in the public conferment of the Principate upon the heir whom he had designated. Tiberius hi

grippa. The arbitrary removal of a rival was no less essential to the Principate than the public conferment of legal and constitut

leading the legions of Rome to battle against the Parthians; and the Principate , for all its profession of peace, called on Rome

ovran blend of ancient Roman virtue and Hellenic culture. Under the Principate of Augustus the village as well as the small town

ere more evidence available concerning the legions of the West in the Principate of Augustus, it may be presumed that men from Spa

influencing opinion, used all his arts to persuade men to accept the Principate and its programme. PageNotes. 458 1 Velleius

ost promising of the poets at an early stage and nursed them into the Principate . Augustus himself listened to recitations with pa

as against Egypt and the East. The contest was perpetuated under the Principate by the Augustan reaction from contemporary Hellen

shed order. Virgil, Horace and Livy are the enduring glories of the Principate ; and all three were on terms of personal friendsh

s were not strong in the western lands: in the East the fact that the Principate was a monarchy guaranteed its ready acceptance. T

al crises, it falsifies the symptoms. Most of the real history of the Principate is secret history. The nobiles were unable or u

and advancement from the present order. For the sake of peace, the Principate had to be. That was admitted. But was Augustus th

far. 3 This is the argument in Tacitus, Ann. 1, 10 not against the Principate but against the Princeps. PageBook=>480 Th

inna was pardoned after a not very well authenticated conspiracy, the Principate could also show its judicial murders or deaths se

ribed to all eternity the authors of the proscriptions,5 survived the Principate of Augustus. He was prosecuted under Tiberius by

eft no personal and authentic record to show what they thought of the Principate of Augustus. They were preserved, pampered and su

lar bearer of the name was a Junius Silanus by birth. Likewise to the Principate of Augustus belongs the last consul of the ancien

were not the most prominent among the sacrifices of the blood-stained Principate , not the closest in power, in prestige, or in fam

n was added the discomfort of a false role. It broke Tiberius and the Principate as well. When Augustus died, tranquil and compo

ted already with the Aemilii, attain to alarming prominence under the Principate . M. Junius Silanus, grandson of the renegade who

mpeius. Nor was the house of Sulla extinct an obscure grandson in the Principate of Augustus produced consular sons. 6 PageNotes

new families ennobled for loyal service in the years of peace and the Principate always rich in offspring. The only son of L. Tari

he Acilii Glabriones, not of great political consequence in the early Principate , survive the longest, PIR2, A 62 ff., with consul

, of the blood of Augustus; 4 the other enjoyed a brief tenure of the Principate that Augustus had founded. Ambition, display an

ens in all the world. Hostility to the nobiles was engrained in the Principate from its military and revolutionary origins. In t

obiles was spiritual as well as political. It was not merely that the Principate engrossed their power and their wealth: worse tha

Caesar’s heir at Philippi, could not have been invoked to support his Principate without scandal or inconvenience. Cato was alread

ges looked back with regret to the freedom enjoyed under the tolerant Principate of Augustus. 2 Discontent with their own times dr

rovide: Rome owed them a debt for their ancestors. It was paid by the Principate , under pretext of public service and distinction

ugh hereditary succession was sternly banished from the theory of the Principate , every effort was made to apply it in practice, f

ies must give way before civic duty and national patriotism. With the Principate , it was not merely Augustus and his party that pr

uled. 2 This is his comment on Tiberius. It was no less true of the Principate of Augustus rather more so. To be sure, the State

the middle way between these extremes. 4 It was not long before the Principate gave birth to its own theory, and so became vulne

s widely held in senatorial circles, should be the very spirit of the Principate . All too long, soul and body had been severed. It

nd body had been severed. It was claimed that they were united in the Principate of Nerva which succeeded the absolute rule of Dom

py time, when freedom of thought prevailed and freedom of speech, the Principate of Nerva and the rule of Trajan. 2 He turned inst

B.C.) and his son, or from honest independence like Piso. With the Principate comes a change. For the senator, as for the State

Tacitus nor Trajan had been a party to this folly; the brief unhappy Principate of Nerva was a cogent argument for firm control o

‘felicissimus status’, as Augustus and Velleius Paterculus termed the Principate , the ‘optimus status’ which Augustus aspired to c

as the greatest triumph of all. Had he died in the early years of the Principate , his party would have survived, led by Agrippa, o

, his most pertinacious designs, had been thwarted. But peace and the Principate endured. A successor had been found, trained in h

earlier: the duration of his life, by accustoming men’s minds to the Principate as something permanent and enhancing his own pres

of Octavianus, 230, 236 f., 297; of Antonius, 267 ff., 296; under the Principate , 397. Aeclanum, 82, 88, 356, 383. Aelia Galla

um, 225; his public library, 241; attitude in 32 B.C., 291; under the Principate , 320, 482, 512; his death, 512.; His character, 5

he Triumvirs, 195, 355; endangered in 32 B.C., 290; favourable to the Principate , 351, 451 f., 476. PageBook=>541 Cappadoci

nturions, 70, 79 f., 243, 395; promotion to equestrian rank under the Principate , 353. Chumstinctus, Nervian, 475. Cicero, see T

res, at Rome, 403. Curio, see Scribonius. Cursus honorum, under the Principate , 358 f., 369 ff., 396. Curtius, C., benevolent ba

tle of Augustus, 519 f. Cyprus, given to Egypt, 260, 272; under the Principate , 326, 339, 395, 406; governors of, 406. Cyrene,

74. Divus Julius, 55, 202, 211, 250, 301, 305, 318; cult of, in the Principate , 471. Dolabella, see Cornelius. Domi nobiles, 8

aly, impaired by the separation of East and West, 290; revived by the Principate , 351, 451 f. Education, Roman view of, 445. E

sm, in politics, 135 f.; anti-political, 247; out of favour under the Principate , 461. Epicureans, 135 f., 149 f. Eprius Marce

ianus in 44 B.C., 131; attitude to Antonius, 272 f., 290; welcome the Principate , 351; under the Principate, 355; see also Knights

tude to Antonius, 272 f., 290; welcome the Principate, 351; under the Principate , 355; see also Knights. Firmius, L., military t

Octavianus, 231, 295; of Antonius, 231, 294 f.; command of, under the Principate , 356, 397; see also Admirals. Fleginas, C, knig

ands, 201; unpopular in 32 B.C., 284; status and opportunities in the Principate , 354; imperial freedmen, 385, 410; legislation co

3 B.C.), 187. Games, demonstrations at, 116 f., 459, 478; under the Principate , 468 f. Gardens, pleasure-, 21, 77, 380, 452. G

on, 97; funeral, 98 f.; cult, 99, 117, 123, 204; reputation under the Principate , 317 f., 442. His partisans and adherents, 41, 51

sentiments about the new order, 257, 351; as a cardinal factor in the Principate , 355; as procurators, 356; in high office, 356 f.

440, 456, 482, 492, 506, 512, 515; as a catchword, 154 ff.; under the Principate , 320 f., 516 f. Libertas Augusta, 506. Libert

t soldier, 449. Literature, under the Triumvirs, 247 ff.; under the Principate , 459 ff.; political literature, 149 ff., 486; o

364; and military service, 356; organic function in the system of the Principate , 364 see also Italy, Novi homines. Murcus, see

63, 375; as a qualification for promotion, 374 f.; decline of, in the Principate , 483, 487, 515 f. Ostorius Scapula, Q., Prefect o

friend of Virgil, 225. Plutocracy, 452, 458, 501; disguised by the Principate , 351, 358. Poets, politics of, 62 f., 251 ff.;

. Political theory, inadequacies of, 120 f., 321 f.; concerning the Principate , 319 ff., 516 ff.; and the unification of Italy,

46; laudations of Cato, 56, 138 f., 250, 459, 460; repute under the Principate , 329 f., 506 f.; Augustus’ verdict, 320, 506. P

ceps’, 316, 519; Optimus princeps’, 519. Princeps senatus, 307. Principate , of Augustus, 1 ff.; powers of, 313 f., 336 f.; t

, 163. Proconsuls, danger from, 310, 328; appointment of, under the Principate , 330, 382, 395; with armies under the Principate,

ntment of, under the Principate, 330, 382, 395; with armies under the Principate , 314, 328, 330, 394; divine honours for, 30, 263,

330, 394; divine honours for, 30, 263, 405, 473; behaviour of, in the Principate , 477. Proculeius, C., Roman knight, 236, 266, 2

.; against Antonius and Cleopatra, 270 f., 273, 275, 289, 305; in the Principate , 459 ff. Propertius, Sex., 252; his origin and

by Augustus, 394, 406; control of, in A.D. 14, 437 f.; loyalty to the Principate , 476 f. Provincials, in the Senate, 79 f., 367,

. Ptolemy Philadelphus, 261. Publicani, 14, 67, 271 f.; under the Principate , 355, 477. Pulcher, see Claudius. Pupius Piso C

3, 313 ff., 323; true character of, 325, 351. Republicanism, in the Principate of Augustus, 320, 420, 506; true character of, 51

racter of, 514; in northern Italy, 465, 478. Republicans, under the Principate , 318, 320, 335, 338 f., 420, 481 ff., 512 ff. Res

publica, a façade, 11 f.; Caesar’s opinion, 53; made a reality by the Principate , 513 f., 519. Res publica constituta, ideal of,

, 394, 406; prerogatives in the Republic, 153, 160, 167 f.; under the Principate , 406, 412; judicial powers, 406; committees, 408

12; judicial powers, 406; committees, 408 f.; real function under the Principate , 407. Senators, as a class, 10 ff.; wealth of,

f.; with Octavianus at Actium, 293, 349. Senatus consulta under the Principate , 406. Sentinum, 210. Sentius Saturninus, C. (co

217, 255; divorced from politics, 352 f.; avenue for promotion in the Principate , 352 ff.; conditions of service, 389; as clients

367, 501; soldiers, 457; emperors, 366, 490, 501; importance in the Principate , 455, 474. Spolia opima, 308. Staius Murcus,

er him, 281, 405; deserts Antonius, 281 f.; at Actium, 297; under the Principate , 328, 349; legate of Syria, 398; his unpopularity

to illustrate the political history and the marriage alliances of the Principate of Augustus, omits certain childless matches and