c interest, of classes even, and of military leaders. Before long the Italian allies were dragged into Roman dissensions. The t

is kinsman, L. Porcius Cato (cos. 89), was defeated and killed by the Italian insurgents in the Marsic territory (Livy, Per. 75

tates and wide influence. 1 Cn. Pompeius Strabo, after shattering the Italian insurrection in Picenum, used his influence and h

ted in a small city-state or in a Rome that was merely the head of an Italian confederation. In the capital of the world they w

tige, and the illicit armies of Pompeius Magnus (stationed already on Italian soil or now being recruited for the government an

had consistently advocated the cause of the oppressed, whether Roman, Italian or provincial. He had shown that he was not afrai

whole regiment of Spanish cavalry, volunteers recruited to crush the Italian insurgents:4 the son reconquered Spain from Serto

intensive exploitation by traders and financiers. The colonial and Italian element is more conspicuous in Spain, which had b

estrian or new senators, from the provinces of the West, some were of Italian , others of native extraction. The antithesis is i

ll, Caesar recruited for his new Senate the propertied classes of the Italian towns, men of station and substance, whether thei

ted by the facts of geography and communications, and by the study of Italian ethnography and Italian dialects. 3 As the Pael

raphy and communications, and by the study of Italian ethnography and Italian dialects. 3 As the Paelignian poet said of his

nto which Etruria was dragged along with the stubborn remnants of the Italian insurgents. Marius had many adherents in the Etru

of valour, wealth and family and perhaps a timely abandonment of the Italian cause Rome’s enemy entered the Roman Senate. 2

But the Caesarian general L. Staius Murcus was presumably of central Italian origin; 7 and the warlike Marsi emerge into promi

nd unmixed blessing to the descendant of Etruscan kings or even to an Italian magnate. Of the consulate there had been scant

e, there stood Rome and the Republic. 2 Cassius, however, lingered in Italian waters for some time. As for Antonius, pressure

and under evil auspices, Octavianus took in hand the confiscation of Italian property and the settlement of the veterans of Ph

who wished to have his hands free of western entanglements and needed Italian legionaries for his own campaigns, agreed to meet

be represented as a pirate. 5 Peace was not kept for long upon the Italian seas. Before the year was out mutual accusations

ervice, allotting lands and founding colonies more on provincial than Italian soil. That was politic and perhaps necessary. O

divinity. 5 His statue was now placed in temples by loyal or obedient Italian municipalities. 6 At Rome the homage due to a mil

social. There were to be no more proscriptions, no more expulsions of Italian gentry and farmers. Many of the exiles had return

d enhanced their power by inducing men of repute and substance in the Italian communities to contract ties of personal allegian

s friends, championing Italy against the plebs of Rome, got help from Italian men of property, themselves menaced. 4 Aid from I

, the toga and eternal Vesta! 1 But Horace, himself perhaps no son of Italian stock, was conveniently oblivious of recent Itali

perhaps no son of Italian stock, was conveniently oblivious of recent Italian history. The Marsi had no reason at all to be pas

usia. For any contest it would have been difficult enough to enlist Italian sentiment. Italy had no quarrel with Antonius; as

ident that the most confident as well as the most vocal assertions of Italian nationalism followed rather than preceded the War

the two dynasts after the Pact of Brundisium had been prejudicial to Italian economy as well as alarming to Italian sentiment.

disium had been prejudicial to Italian economy as well as alarming to Italian sentiment. As it was, Antonius’ system of reducin

e Roman army, Augustus provided the discharged legionaries with land, Italian or provincial, which he had purchased from his ow

y were drawn from the aristocracy of the towns, provincial as well as Italian . Thus P. Vitellius of Nuceria and M. Magius Max

nd Revolution both broke down Roman prejudice and enriched the poorer Italian gentry: the aristocracy among the peoples vanquis

be conjectured that the patriotic clubs (collegia iuventutis) of the Italian towns had a definite role to play. Knights them

ed, for by now the veterans of the Civil Wars had been established in Italian and provincial colonies. Fresh material and a bet

ir Alexander it was glorious, but it was not Empire. Armies of robust Italian peasants had crushed and broken the great kings i

Hannibal. 5 The ideal of virtue and valour was not Roman only, but Italian , ingrained in the Sabines of old and in Etruria,

ould not be utterly alien to the practice of agriculture. Citizens of Italian municipia, had mostly been born, or had lived, on

ckened the pulse of trade, augmenting profits and costs. The price of Italian land rose steeply. 3 The rich grew richer. Their

tocracy was traditional, and Augustus was a traditional member of the Italian middle class. No less genuine his patriotism: it

the geographical limits of Italy, for it included the descendants of Italian colonists and natives who had received the Roman

the Roman People. 1 On no interpretation could these aliens pass for Italian peasants, still less for members of the Italian b

these aliens pass for Italian peasants, still less for members of the Italian bourgeoisie. 2 But they were a tough and military

iter of urban purity, mocked and showed up the provincial. Pollio, an Italian from the land of the Marrucini, was provincial hi

bonensis should have supplied the first provincial emperors, of stock Italian , native or mixed, the descendants or the peers of

there were excellent men to be found in this company, sons of the old Italian aristocracy, whose private virtues did not avail

iterature, themselves no mean part of it. The Roman patrician and the Italian novus homo alike had salvaged honour and fame, ye

and real, 270 f., 275; true character, 289; as a myth, 440 f.; as an Italian victory, 453. Administration, imperial, 387 ff.

nius, M. (cos. suff. 34 B.C.), 92, 200, 242, 328, 498. Herennius, T., Italian general, 92. Herennius Picens, M. (cos. suff. A

Q., Pompeian and Antonian admiral, 228, 269, 296, 350. Nationalism, Italian , 287 f., 453, 465 f.; Roman, 256, 440 f. Naulochu

tary commands, 502 ff. Nola, siege of, 87. Nomenclature, of local Italian families, 83 f.; non-Latin, types of, 93 f., 361

.; from the Civil Wars, 351, 354, 380 f., 451 f., 512. Proletariat, Italian , 15, 89, 180 f., 352, 514. Propaganda, of Octav