diplomacy; and he lived to within a decade of the death of Augustus. His character and tastes disposed him to be neutral i

and with veracity. It was no other than Claudius, a pupil of Livy. 3 His master had less exacting standards. The great w

so much to precipitate the Bellum Italicum, left no son of his blood. His sister was twice married, to a NotesPage=>02

). The identity of his wife is inferred from the inscr. ILS 9460. 2 His father, Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus (cos. 96), was v

ain the dignitas of the Julii and secure the consulate in his turn. 2 His aunt was the wife of Marius. Caesar, who took Cin

nts of H. Strasburger, Caesars Eintritt in die Geschichte (1938). 3 His mother was an Aurelia, of the house of the Aureli

ompeius Rufus (cos. 88 B.C.) had married Sulla’s eldest daughter. 5 His competitors were Q. Lutatius Catulus and P. Servi

s lieutenants to stand for magistracies and intrigue in his interest. His name dominated elections and legislation. To gain

even on their own terms. Nor was Pompeius in any way to their liking. His family was recent enough to excite dispraise or c

political contest. 2 Pompeius Magnus trod warily and pleased nobody. His first speech before the People was flat and verbo

, innocentissimo, eloquentissimo, M. Pisoni. ’ 6 Dio 37, 49, 1. 7 His consulate a disgrace, Ad Att. 1, 18, 5; 19, 4; 20

49, 1. 7 His consulate a disgrace, Ad Att. 1, 18, 5; 19, 4; 20, 5. His talent as a dancer, Dio 37, 49, 3. 8 Dio 37, 49

ous person who had married Fausta, the dissolute daughter of Sulla. 2 His enemy P. Clodius was running for the praetorship.

f.; his ignorance about a detail of family history, Ad Att. 6, 1, 17. His morals (Val. Max. 9, 1, 8) and his capacity (Caes

ok=>046 The policy arose from the brain and will of Marcus Cato. His allies, eager to enlist a man of principle on the

n to seize power through civil strife and hold it, supreme and alone. His work done, the Dictator resigned. The conquest

e plea which Caesar himself valued most it was his personal honour. His enemies appeared to have triumphed. They had driv

ristocrat to contend with his peers for primacy, not to destroy them. His enemies had the laugh of him in death. Even Phars

nemies had the laugh of him in death. Even Pharsalus was not the end. His former ally, the great Pompeius, glorious from vi

cking a revolutionary programme, Caesar established his Dictatorship. His rule began as the triumph of a faction in civil w

dispel all hope of a return to normal and constitutional government. His rule was far worse than the violent and illegal d

d monarchy. A faction recruited from the most NotesPage=>056 1 His imperious and arrogant temper was noted by contem

of greater ills to the Commonwealth, the Dictator himself observed. 1 His judgement was vindicated in blood and suffering;

hat ideal of character, admired by those who did not care to imitate. His was not a simple personality but passionate, inte

3 Frontinus, De aq. 76 4 And with Ahenobarbus (Ad fam’. 8, 14, 1). His feud with Ap. Pulcher and his friendship with Cur

aesar yet seemed as consistent in his politics as in his friendships. His earliest ties were not forgotten; and his ascensi

on his side, Ap. Claudius, who strove to expel Curio from the Senate. His colleague Piso thwarted that move, but was unable

hed scope for political patronage as well as for military experience. His numerous legates might have been the nucleus of a

ompacts arranged without the knowledge and the mediation of Balbus. 3 His unpopularity is attested by the elaborate excuses

t;072 1 Ad Att. 8, 15a; 9, 7a and b, &c. 2 Pro Balbo, passim. His new gentile name, ‘Cornelius’, he probably derive

kers and financiers, C. Rabirius Postumus, was an ardent Caesarian. 4 His father, C. Curtius, is designated as a leader of

izenship; his brother likewise served in the war against Mithridates. His son, Pompeius Trogus, was the confidential secret

northern Italy filled the legions of Caesar with devoted recruits. 3 His new conquest, Gallia Comata, provided wealth and

nger Balbus. Gallus came from Forum Julii (Jerome, Chron., p. 164 H). His father was called Cn. Cornelius (ILS 8995), and m

alien community allied to Rome. Balbus did not yet enter the Senate. His young nephew, courageous and proud, cruel and lux

, LE, 268, cf. the inscr. CIL XI, 1994: ‘Vel. Vibius Ar. Pansa Tro. ’ His second cognomen, Caetronianus (ILS 8890), derives

, the army contractor. All posterity knows Ventidius as a muleteer. 3 His career was laborious, but his origin may have bee

On which cf. H. Rudolph, Stadt u. Staat im römischen Italien (1935). His main thesis, however, is firmly contested by Stua

in turn, was sincere in one thing, loyalty to the established order. His past career showed that he could not be depended

ed up civil war two years before, seizing the strong place of Apamea. His forces were inconsiderable, one or two legions; a

reme magistrates. Antonius displayed consummate skill as a statesman. His own security and the maintenance of order dictate

perior to what Rome had learned to expect of the politician in power. His year of office would have to go far in violence a

ys. 1 The Caesarian leader had left this competitor out of account. His primacy depended upon a delicate equilibrium betw

l hoped to avoid an open breach with the party of Brutus and Cassius. His professions, both public and private, had hithert

on as a politician, he now became bewildered, impatient and tactless. His relations with Octavianus did not improve. Neit

um a statue of Caesar with the inscription ‘Parenti optime merito’. 2 His enemies let loose upon him a tribune, Ti. Cannuti

f he lingered until the expiration of his consular year, he was lost. His enemies might win the provincial armies. Brutus a

y was menaced. Senate, plebs and veterans were mobilized against him. His enemies had drawn the sword: naked force must dec

led over the living. The baffled consul took refuge in invective. 1 His edicts exposed and denounced the levying of a pri

atives were not numerous; 2 and he got little NotesPage=>127 1 His arguments may be discovered from Cicero’s defence

of their attitude or activities at this time. NotesPage=>128 1 His father, L. Marcius Philippus (cos. 91, censor 86)

C. Maecenas, a diplomat and a statesman, an artist and a voluptuary. His grandfather was a man of property, of suitable an

, to the Treasury, holding that his own inheritance was sufficient. 3 His own patrimony he was soon to invest ‘for the good

eager admiration for their loyalty, their patriotism, their capacity. His private letters tell another story: he derided th

of 41 B.C. and get one of the places for his son, praetor in 44. 6 His mother was a Junia (Ad fam. 15, 8), presumably th

man politics again appeared to be degenerating into faction strife. 1 His character was vindicated by his conduct, his saga

ed upon a tortuous policy, to enhance his power and that of his clan. His family connexions would permit an independent and

his political ideal, though not in the means he adopted to attain it. His defence can hardly cover the whole of his career.

red on September 2nd and protested against the actions of the consul. His observations were negative and provocative: they

BC 53, 6, cf. above, p. 25. PageBook=>147 recalled his career. His hostility towards Antonius was declared and feroc

boldly asserting his responsibility for the actions of Octavianus. 2 His policy violated public law with what chance of su

eir set forth to free Rome from the tyranny of the consul Antonius. 5 His ultimate triumph found its consecration in the le

not count as consulars at all: that is to say, they were Caesarians. His harsh verdict is borne out by the facts. Only one

xpertum habernus. ’ PageBook=>166 surviving epistle to Cicero. His style had lost none of its elegance: he protested

lius, was accused of an attempt to assassinate the consul Octavianus. His indignant colleagues deposed the criminal from of

f arms, Lepidus and Antonius could have overwhelmed the young consul. His name and fortune shielded him once again. In the

ero could have escaped through indecision he lingered until too late. His murder disgraced the Triumvirs and enriched liter

hat family towards Plancus, cf. Velleius 2, 83, 3. below, p. 283. 5 His brother Gaius, otherwise known as L. Plotius Plan

sul with a gentilicium ending in ‘-isius’: non-Latin, cf. ‘Carisius’. His origin is unknown. The dedication ILS 925 (Spolet

uished than Agrippa, was his senior in years and military experience. His example showed that the holding of senatorial off

vianus, with Agrippa in his company, had retired to southern Etruria. His situation was precarious. He had already recalled

the fortune that clung to his name. In Gaul Calenus opportunely died. His son, lacking experience or confidence, was induce

victor of Philippi could not forswear his promises and his soldiers. His own share was the gathering of funds in the East

now invading Italy with what remained of the Republican armed forces. His admiral was Ahenobarbus, Cato’s nephew, under sen

lship by the sudden and complete rout of a body of hostile cavalry. 3 His brother had tried to defend the landed class in I

ry; and Antonius himself had been inactive during the War of Perusia. His errors had enabled Octavianus to assert himself a

and did not resign ambition, but lacked a party and devoted legions. His style of politics was passing out of date. Antoni

g that reminded him of her brother must have been highly distasteful. His future and his fate lay in the East, with another

on and insinuated himself into the clan of the Claudii by a marriage. His party now began to attract ambitious aristocrats,

his father, through diplomacy, hoped to get him an early consulate. 6 His ambition was now satisfied, his allegiance beyond

ianus now had a war on his hands earlier perhaps than he had planned. His best men, Agrippa and Calvinus, were absent. Lepi

, though the day was long past when that alone brought power at Rome. His brother-in-law the consular P. Servilius carried

. 3 Cornificius rescued the remnants of the fleet. Hope soon revived. His generals, and Lepidus as well, had secured a firm

in Sicily (BMC, R. Rep. 11, 515 f.; Greek Coins, Sicily, 61; 95). 3 His misfortunes gave Antonius sufficient matter for r

nce again the plea of averting Roman bloodshed recoiled upon Lepidus. His dignitas forfeit, Lepidus begged publicly for mer

ready hailed the young Caesar with the name or epithet of divinity. 5 His statue was now placed in temples by loyal or obed

considerable part, it is true, had been the work of his lieutenants. His health was frail, scanty indeed his military skil

t not only for splendour and for the gods. He invoked public utility. His minister NotesPage=>241 1 The presence of

e of their Republican vigour and independence, little of their grace. His style was dry and harsh, carrying avoidance of rh

4 Ambition had spurred his youth to imprudent NotesPage=>247 1 His greatest work, the Antiquitates rerum humanarum e

e now composed satires but not in the traditional manner of Lucilius. His subject was ordinary life, his treatment not hars

Antonius was absent from Italy, but Antonius was the senior partner. His prestige, though waning, was still formidable eno

PIR1, P 835. (Strabo, p. 949.). He was worth twelve million denarii. His daughter was to marry Polemo, King of Pontus. P

>269 The last adherents of Sex. Pompeius deserted to Antonius. 1 His father-in-law L. Scribonius Libo at once became c

I, 103 ff.: he is the Gellius infamously derided by Catullus (88-91). His wife Sempronia, daughter of L. Atratinus, is ment

annexation, Bithynia-Pontus and Cilicia an augmentation of territory. His dispositions, though admirable, were in some resp

s of Cleopatra, beguiled by her beauty or dominated by her intellect. His position was awkward if he did not placate the Qu

north-eastern frontier. Octavianus had to wait and hope for the best. His enemy would soon have to make a ruinous decision.

f Pollio concerning these transactions and it can be well understood. His comments would have been frank and bitter. Octa

ck. Patrae at the mouth of the Gulf of Corinth was his head-quarters. His forces, fed by corn-ships from Egypt, were strung

rmenia and one part of the north-eastern frontier policy of Antonius. His retreat from commitments in the East was unobtrus

nce threw a wine-cup in the face of M. Agrippa. 2 Dio 51, 23, 2 ff. His two campaigns belong to the years 29 and 28. 3

and the army. But he could not rule without the help of an oligarchy. His primacy was precarious if it did not accommodate

with definite reference to the victories or to the power of Augustus. His attention to ancient monuments is described as ‘s

ation delivered by Tiberius). PageBook=>317 and lost in war. 1 His murders and his treacheries were not forgotten. 2

e. The authentic Cato, however, was not merely ‘ferox’ but ‘atrox’. 4 His nephew Brutus, who proclaimed a firm determinatio

of auctoritas and legally granted powers does not exhaust the count. His rule was personal—and based ultimately upon a per

e=>325 1 ILS 893. 2 Dio 51, 23, 1. 3 Above, pp. 189 and 268. His son may have been married to a granddaughter of C

instructions from the Princeps. The First Citizen appeared in court. His denial upon oath secured condemnation of the offe

s to the visible and therefore vulnerable prerogatives of magistracy. His passage from Dux to Princeps in 28 and 27 B.C. em

Virtus begets ambition; and Agrippa had all the ambition of a Roman. His refusal of honours was represented as modest self

but to no other man, and to Augustus not always with good grace. 1 His portraits reveal an authentic individual with har

nd the Claudian, knew their own class better and knew its failings. His name, his ambition and his acts had denied the re

t nominate candidates that would have been invidious and superfluous. His will prevailed, in virtue of auctoritas. 3 In t

with no official standing. 1 Rome was glad when Augustus returned. His rule, now more firmly consolidated, went on stead

he progeny of others. 2 The daughter was not the Princeps’ only pawn. His sister Octavia had children by her two marriages:

ess possession of inherited wealth, but the spoil of the provinces. 7 His granddaughter, the beautiful Lollia Paullina, par

did Tacitus (cf. Seneca, De ben. 2, 27, 1). 6 Tacitus, Ann. 3, 22. His divorced wife Aemilia Lepida dishonestly pretende

laudius Nero. PageBook=>384 The next generation was Caesarian. His father’s brother, a senator, supported Agrippa in

M. Vinicius, cos. A.D. 30, cos. II 45. 5 For the son, PIR1, P 109. His full name was C. Sallustius Passienus Crispus, cf

nube is the cardinal achievement of the foreign policy of Augustus. 2 His own earlier campaigns had been defensive in purpo

1, 18, 2. 4 CIL III, 7124 mentions a constitutio of Vedius Pollio. His name occurs on coins of Tralles, and perhaps his

ilitare and, soon after, of the cura annonae. 2 Tacitus, Ann. 1, 7. His son was at once appointed to be his colleague, ib

exile, nourishing his resentment upon a diet of science and letters. His enemies called it secret vice. 1 Like Agrippa, be

tion; like Agrippa, he would yield to Augustus but not in all things. His pride had been wounded, his dignitas impaired. Bu

to monarchy was something very different. Tiberius dwelt at Rhodes. His career was ended, his life precarious. Of that, n

ical alliance with the Caesarian cause, but not through the Triumvir. His nephew and enemy, Paullus Aemilius Lepidus, from

temma of the Pisones, ib., facing p. 54. See also Table V at end. 2 His daughter (PIR2, C 323) married L. Nonius Asprenas

ked in his own family. Yet he could have dealt with the matter there. His programme was unpopular enough with the aristocra

, 3; Tacitus, Ann. 4, 1 (Seianus). 3 Suetonius, Tib. 13, 1. 4 lb. His father had been active in Narbonensis for Caesar

something to do with the match (P-W IV A, 837). PageBook=>430 His diplomatic foresight was handsomely requited, bef

Tiberius improved, though his political prospects grew no brighter. His spirit appears to have been broken. He had alread

he was treacherously attacked and wounded. The wound refused to heal. His malady brought on a deep dejection, reinforcing p

pline of the camp or the playing-field: it was out of place at Court. His coeval, Germanicus’ young brother Claudius, whom

369), the son of Paullus and Cornelia, is a more prominent character. His daughter was betrothed to Drusus, son of Germanic

was destined to hold a long tenure of the post of praefectus urbi. 5 His successor, though only for a year, was L. Aelius

ion of the supreme power. NotesPage=>438 1 Velleius 2, 125, 5. His daughter too was betrothed to a son of Germanicus

uty to the State. Then individuals were poor, but the State was rich. His immoral and selfish descendants had all but ruine

he hard realism, the lack of chivalry, the caution and the parsimony. His tastes, his language and his wit were homely: his

well have dreamed. PageNotes. 455 1 Suetonius, Divus Aug. 90 ff. His protecting deity Apollo has indigenous features.

f Julia or the frugal virtues of upstarts enriched by the Civil Wars. His books would have been burned in the Forum, with t

lia populosque ferocis contundet, moresque viris et moenia ponet. 5 His triumph did not bring personal domination, but th

appeal of the traditional gods of Rome. Nor was Divus Julius enough. His son could hardly have prevented, even had it been

majestic and martial in appearance as his effigies show him forth. 1 His limbs were well proportioned, but his stature was

ssed and derided as offensive when they were not palpably fraudulent. His personal courage was not above reproach. With all

6 Ib. 8 because he snored. 7 Dig. 1, 2, 2, 47. PageBook=>483 His freedom of speech cost him promotion he did not r

prosecuted Augustus’ friend Nonius Asprenas on a charge of poisoning. His activities were not confined to the courts he com

a noble speech defending history against oppression and despotism. 6 His works were condemned and burnt. Augustus was able

; on his marriage to Aemilia Lepida, Ann. 3, 23. PageBook=>493 His son became consul under Tiberius, a great orator

merces sustentabatur; neque tamen effugit magnae fortunae pericula. ’ His father had been executed in A.D. 14 by Asprenas t

rect descendants even of a Triumviral consul. 10 PageNotes. 500 1 His wife had given birth to six children, Tacitus, An

the Republic ’quotus quisque reliquus qui rem publicam vidisset? ’1 His purpose was expressly to deny the Republic of Aug

ut illi viribus opus est, ita et huic capite. ’ PageBook=>521 His rule was personal, if ever rule was, and his posi

ustus had also prayed for a successor in the post of honour and duty. His dearest hopes, his most pertinacious designs, had

ibes the constitutional position of the Princeps and most misleading. His powers are defined as legal and magisterial; and

n 32 B.C., 291; under the Principate, 320, 482, 512; his death, 512.; His character, 5 f.; dislikes Cicero, 166, 318, 483;

, 433, 438 f.; death and deification, 438 f., 521 f.; cult, 469, 524. His constitutional powers, 313 ff., 336 ff., 406, 412

406; administrative reforms, 401 ff., 410 f.; moral reforms, 443 ff. His real power, 2 f., 322 f., 370, 404 f.; in relatio

., 465 f., 472 f.; with the Empire, 323, 365f., 473 ff., 476 f., 521. His character, 2, 113, 340, 346 f., 454, 479 ff.; und

484, 522 ff.; literary tastes, 460, 484 f.; opinion about Cato, 506. His family and kinsmen, 83, 112, 127 ff., 150, 340 f.

ult, 99, 117, 123, 204; reputation under the Principate, 317 f., 442. His partisans and adherents, 41, 51, 59, 61 ff., 94 f

ication of Italy, 82, 89 ff., 92 ff., 359; his liberal policy, 365 f. His character, 25, 70, 121 f.; insistence on dignitas

il war, 183 f., 203; campaign of Philippi, 203 ff.; his suicide, 206. His allies and relatives, 44 f., 69, 95, 163, 198, 20

e Civil War, 42 f., 45 ff.; his strategy, 49, 90, 102; his death, 50. His family, 28 f.; relatives, 30 f.; descendants, 228

491; freedmen, 76, 385; provincial clientela, 30, 42, 74 ff., 261 ff. His character, 26 f., 137; as a champion of the Repub

ulty of his position as emperor, 505, 521; edits the Res Gestae, 522. His character, 417; Republicanism, 344 f., 418; detes

147 f., 183 ff.; proscription and death, 192; Pollio’s verdict, 192.; His character, 122, 138, 320 f.; wealth, 195; town ho