e winning of sole power by the last of the dynasts through the War of Actium , from the ostensible restoration of the Republic

To take it all for granted, however, and make a clean beginning after Actium or in 27 B.C. is an offence against the nature of

he oratory of Cicero, by fraud and fiction, and by the catastrophe at Actium . To this partisan and pragmatic interpretation

of the Civil Wars through the period of the Triumvirate to the War of Actium and the Principate of Augustus: the work appears

te, it will be necessary to forget both the Philippics and the War of Actium . The political advocate and the verdict of conv

between 40 and 19 B.C. 7 Dio 48, 30, 7. He was later an admiral at Actium (Velleius 2, 85, 2). 8 Porphyrio on Horace, Sat

eius, however, was surely coining for Octavianus on Cephallenia after Actium , cf. BMC, R. Rep. II 533. There are many uncertai

s 36). 7 M. Insteius from Pisaurum (Cicero, Phil. 13, 26) fought at Actium (Plutarch, Antonius 65). Q. Didius, attested as g

, R. Rep. 11, 564 f.; Appian, BC 5, 139, 579) fought as an admiral at Actium (Dio 50, 13, 5); for Turullius, cf. BMC, R. Rep.

mpeius and then with Antonius (Dio 51, 4, 3). M. Octavius, admiral at Actium (Plutarch, Antonius 65), perhaps a son of the con

3, 5, 3, &c). The mysterious Metellus was saved by his son after Actium (Appian, BC 4, 42, 175 ff). L. Pinarius Scarpus,

t quite ripe. The official Roman version of the cause of the War of Actium is quite simple, consistent and suspect a just wa

ction of Rome. The clue is to be found in the character of the War of Actium as it was designed and contrived by the party of

ons of Antonius or of Cleopatra were not the true cause of the War of Actium ; 4 they were a pretext in the strife for power,

than seven hundred senators fought on Octavianus’ side in the War of Actium (Res Gestae 25): the total strength of the Senate

allegiance to me and chose me as its leader in the war which I won at Actium . ’4 So Augustus wrote in the majestic memorial of

vit in mea ver[ba] tota | Italia sponte sua et me be[lli] quo vici ad Actium ducem depoposcit. ’ PageBook=>285 by the h

ral and undistinctive appellation of ‘Italian’. Within a few years of Actium , a patriotic poet revolted at the mere thought th

tions of Italian nationalism followed rather than preceded the War of Actium . Only then, after victory, did men realize to the

s Gallus, active for Augustus in Gaul about the time of the battle of Actium (Dio 51, 20, 5), certainly came from Aesernia (IL

e moved southwards instead and took up a position on the peninsula of Actium , on the northern shore of the gulf of Ambracia, w

eek an issue there with the help of barbarian allies. 4 The battle of Actium was decided before it was fought. The true stor

e should be a serious battle if they could help it. So it turned out. Actium was a shabby affair, the worthy climax to the ign

history, Roman or Hellenic. 4 In the official version of the victor, Actium took on august dimensions and an intense emotiona

with lavish wealth of convincing and artistic detail. More than that, Actium became the contest of East and West personified,

must have been redoubtable indeed! It was not the glorious battle of Actium and the defeat of the greatest soldier of the day

eius Paterculus fervently extols the clemency of Italy’s leader after Actium . 5 It is naturally difficult to control or refute

icult to control or refute these partisan assertions. Sosius survived Actium ; young Furnius and young Metellus saved their fat

s had been holding a naval command at Ccphallcnia after the Battle of Actium , BMC, R. Rep. 11, 533. 2 Horace, Odes 1, 37, 29

a double detraction. They said that he had deserted the legions after Actium , that he died without fortitude. 2 Antonius’ elde

had been annexed by Antonius, but Armenia fell away during the War of Actium . Octavianus was not incommoded: he took no steps

o the rule of Rome. 1 No themes are more frequent in the decade after Actium —or less relevant to the history of those years. O

eeping of a Roman knight. But what of Syria and Macedonia? Soon after Actium , Messalla was put in charge of Syria :3 Octavianu

and in Spain may have preceded that of Taurus. He is not mentioned at Actium . As for Gaul, Dio records operations of Nonius Ga

omp of three triumphs, for the campaigns in Illyricum, for the War of Actium and for the War of Alexandria—all wars of Rome ag

3 C Norbanus Flaccus, cos. 38 B.C., was proconsul of Asia soon after Actium (Josephus, AJ 16, 171), perhaps for more than one

nged for the final stabilization of the revolutionary age. The War of Actium had been fought and won, the menace to Italy’s li

rought to completion the four books of his Georgics during the War of Actium and Octavianus’ absence in the East. The Georgics

god Quirinus. Full honour was done to the founder in the years after Actium . Caesar had set his own statue in the temple of Q

prose as well as in verse. 2 The conqueror of the East and hero of Actium must now gird himself to the arduous task of rebu

stan anticipations, probably derives from a source written soon after Actium , as Premerstein argues, Vom Werden und Wesen des

, not merely to the oath of allegiance but to the crowning victory of Actium and the reconquest of all the eastern lands for R

sion denied him the title of imperator, which had been conceded since Actium to other proconsuls, and to one commander at leas

application to the great generals of the Republic; and the victor of Actium was the last and the greatest of them all. It cou

obsession with Romulus, prevalent for some years in the aftermath of Actium , gradually recede and lose ground just as the vic

yria and Cilicia Campestris), to which Cyprus, taken from Egypt after Actium , was at first added. 2 L. Ganter, Die Provinzia

fewer than ten triumphs of proconsuls, Caesarian or Antonian, before Actium , and six more since then. Some of these men were

the other consuls of the age of the Revolution and the years between Actium and the first constitutional settlement any more

s, all novi homines. 2 Under the Triumvirate and in the years after Actium partisans of Augustus governed the provinces with

cos. 20) is known; as for L, Arruntius (cos. 22), only his command at Actium is attested. L. Tarius Rufus (cos. suff. 16) and

e had celebrated the crusade of all Italy and the glorious victory of Actium for Actium was the foundation-myth of the new ord

rated the crusade of all Italy and the glorious victory of Actium for Actium was the foundation-myth of the new order. There i

stius Vetus, made consul with Cicero’s bibulous son in the year after Actium : no pretence of Republic then. Nor was the consul

won most of them. With exemplary modesty the victor of Naulochus and Actium declined honours and triumphs and went quietly ab

t disdain a golden crown for Naulochus and an azure flag in honour of Actium (Dio 51, 21, 3). PageBook=>344 Agrippa’s n

alliance between Augustus and Agrippa. 3 Absurd for the aftermath of Actium , when the lines were composed, they are not even

t and West in the years between the Pact of Brundisium and the War of Actium had been alarming, because it corresponded so cle

Over seven hundred senators accompanied Italy’s leader in the War of Actium , most of them with scorn and hate in their hearts

consular L. Gellius Poplicola or of three other Antonian admirals at Actium . 1 Nobiles were required to adorn the Senate of

ins must have been very great: during Octavianus’ preparations before Actium special taxation provoked their resistance. The f

Marsian Poppaedius. Despite the Revolution and the national war of Actium , the process of creating the unity of Italy had n

orters the plebs, the veterans and the knights who had won the War of Actium . In the crisis of 23 B.C. the Caesarian party thw

minent programme of reform. The consulate he gave up: converted since Actium into an office of ostensible authority through Au

ainst Sex. Pompeius and elsewhere. But L. Tarius Rufus, an admiral at Actium , rose at last to the consulate after a command in

ced again in the wars, being represented in the Senate at the time of Actium by not many more than twenty members. The sons of

rds that about one hundred and seventy of his adherents in the War of Actium were rewarded with priesthoods (Res Gestae 25).

=>387 1 Cf. above, p. 197. PageBook=>388 The years before Actium filled up the gaps. The Senate which acclaimed Au

erious danger. It was not until a century elapsed after the Battle of Actium , until Nero, the last of the line of Augustus, ha

nd Octavianus competed to adorn the city of Rome. Augustus soon after Actium set about restoring temples; and the principes vi

to have been active in the province of Asia shortly after the War of Actium , perhaps setting in order the system of taxation.

e, able men had governed Syria the veteran Titius, not heard of since Actium , but probably appointed legate of Syria when Agri

hy and talented family, newly ennobled through his father, admiral at Actium , consul in 22 B.C., and the author of a history o

Tiberius, renewing the allegiance sworn long ago to Octavianus before Actium . 3 This was the essence of the Principate. Certai

at a national mandate had summoned him to supreme power in the War of Actium . Whatever the truth of that contention, he could

s Roman in deliberate opposition to what was Greek. Out of the War of Actium , artfully converted into a spontaneous and patrio

evoked by the long series of civil wars were only too well grounded. Actium had averted the menace but for how long? Could Ro

or title by virtue of his paramount auctoritas. Soon after the War of Actium and the triple triumph Rome witnessed his zealous

Julius prevailed over the Republic at Philippi, Apollo kept faith at Actium : vincit Roma fide Phoebi. 1 The myth of Actiu

ollo kept faith at Actium: vincit Roma fide Phoebi. 1 The myth of Actium was religious as well as national on the one side

he better sort of Greek deities on the right side, so that the War of Actium could be shown as a sublime contest between West

but Italy, perhaps Italy more than Rome, that prevailed in the War of Actium . The Principate itself may, in a certain sense, b

regarded as a triumph of Italy over Rome: Philippi, Perusia and even Actium were victories of the Caesarian party over the no

in: it was not one man’s idea, and the origins of it went back before Actium . The different classes in the Commonwealth had be

lization of a world- empire that was both Roman and Greek. The War of Actium was shown to be a contest not so much against Gre

is tota Italia, spontaneous and admirable. To Virgil the Transpadane, Actium is the victory of Italy, not of Rome only. This c

lebrate with fervour, and with no small air of conviction, the War of Actium , or to plead in solemn tones for the avenging of

est, Musa iocosa mea. 5 PageNotes. 467 1 Propertius 3, 11; 4, 6 ( Actium ); 2, 10; 3, 4 (conquest and revenge in the East).

g. 94 ff. 2 Phil. 5, 43. PageBook=>472 Perusia, Philippi and Actium all had their portents. With victory, the flood o

tary oath of personal allegiance to the military leader in the War of Actium : it did not lapse when he became a magistrate at

by one of his own historians who, praising the ‘lenitas ducis’ after Actium , exclaims that he would have behaved precisely so

behaved precisely so in earlier wars, had it been possible. 4 As for Actium , men might remember the killing of young Curio; a

Ib., Hist. 1, 1. This is assigned as a direct result of the Battle of Actium . In Ann. 1, 1, however, Tacitus is more conciliat

pic poets the grandiloquent Rabirius who had written about the War of Actium . 1 Governments change and careerists make mistake

e to perish with her husband, young Lepidus. Scaurus was spared after Actium . PageNotes. 492 1 It is not certain that the

struggle, if the Liberators had prevailed at Philippi or Antonius at Actium , the ultimate result might have been much the sam

ntractable during the Civil Wars, the only neutral in the campaign of Actium ; he retained his ‘ferocia’ under the New State. P

ho was Decidius Saxa? ’, JRS XXVII (1937), 127 ff. TARN, W. W. ‘ Actium : a note’, JRS XXVIII (1938), 165 ff. ——â€

ones, 500. Acilius Glabrio, M. (cos. suff. 33 B.C.), 242, 328, 330. Actium , Battle of, 276 f.; enhanced by propaganda, 297 f

328, 330. Actium, Battle of, 276 f.; enhanced by propaganda, 297 f. Actium , War of, 294 ff.; causes, alleged and real, 270 f

so Nobiles. Armenia, Antonius’ relations with, 224, 265, 270; after Actium , 301; Augustus’ policy, 388, 428. Armies, contr

., 102 f., 110 f.; in 43 B.C., 165 f.; by the Triumvirs, 189; after Actium , 302 f.; in 27 B.C., 326 ff.; in A.D. 14, 437 f.

nius, 276 ff.; position in 32 B.C., 277 f.; iuratio Italiae, 284 ff.; Actium , 294 ff.; powers after Actium, 307 ff.; the settl

B.C., 277 f.; iuratio Italiae, 284 ff.; Actium, 294 ff.; powers after Actium , 307 ff.; the settlement of 28–27 B.C., 313 ff.;

, 264; in 35–33 B.C., 265, 266; against Cleopatra, 280; in the War of Actium , 294, 296 f.; death, 300, 480; his remarkable car

210, 267; governor of Asia, 232, 264; as a speaker, 283; spared after Actium , 299; adlected inter consulares, 349 f. Furnius

command of, 201, 356, 396; recruitment, 15, 295, 456 ff.; total after Actium , 304; in 13 B.C., 389 f. Legislation, moral, 53

rius, M., partisan of Octavianus, 235, 376; in Sardinia, 213, 216; at Actium , 297; wealth, 380. Lusitania, origin as a provi

ments of Antonius, 266; allegiance in 32 B.C., 292; control of, after Actium , 302 f.; division in 27 B.C., 313 ff., 323 ff., 3

f.; social status of, 80 ff.; Triumviral, 196 ff.; with Octavianus at Actium , 293, 349. Senatus consulta under the Principat

224, 264; builds temple of Apollo, 241; in 32 B.C., 276, 278, 327; at Actium , 295 ff.; as a survivor, 349 f.; his origin, 200;

Sicily, 231; in Africa, 233; priesthoods, 238; in Illyricum, 240; at Actium , 297; perhaps proconsul of Macedonia, 302; in Spa

uff. 16 B.C.), novus homo, 362, 373, 376, 397, 403, 425, 452, 498; at Actium , 297; perhaps proconsul of Illyricum, 330; in Mac

, 281; a city named after him, 281, 405; deserts Antonius, 281 f.; at Actium , 297; under the Principate, 328, 349; legate of S

428, 431, 443, 523. Triumphs, in the Triumviral period, 241; after Actium , 303; denied to senators, 404. Triumvirate, found

the Aeneid, 304 f., 317 f., 462 ff.; his views upon Octavianus after Actium , 304 f.; on Troy, 305; Pompeius and Caesar, 317;

aqueducts, 241 f., 403; at the bedside of Atticus, 257; in the War of Actium , 295 ff.; in 28 B.C., 306; constitutional powers